BURETI TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT

TRADE PROJECT

PROJECT TITLE: UPGRADING OF PROPOSED GRAVEL TO

BITMINOUS FROM KARATINA TOWN TO NDIMAINI SHOPPING
CENTRE (MATHIRA SUB-COUNTY
PRESENTER: SIMON NGOTHO WANJIKU

INDEX NO: 522101509....

SUPERVISOR: MR FREDRICK

COURSE: DIPLOMA CIVIL ENGNEERING

PRESENTED TO: THE KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION

COUNCIL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGNEERING
SERIES: JULY SERIES 2024

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 DECLARATION

I simon ngotho declare that this is my original work that has never been presented to any examination body for
any award ever.

NAME: SIMON NGOTHO WANJIKU

SIGNATURE: ………………...

DATE: …………………………

SUPERVISOR DECLARATION

This project is original work of the above mentioned student and has never been presented by any other person.

SUPERVISORSNAME: MR.FREDRICK.

SIGNATURE: ……………………………

DATE: ……………………….

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my invaluable and heartfelt gratitude to all those who in any way or another made my project successful.
Particularly, I would like to say thank buiding deptertment for their support : The Almighty God for His grace is
sufficient. Secondly, I would like to appreciate the following lectures for their material guidance in class during
the research time, knowledge regarding civil engineering work and completion of this project.

1. Eng. Fredrick lecturer Geotechnology

2. Mr. yegon Survey lecturer

3. Mr. Arnold –Transport Engneering lectureer

4. Mr. Kirui -Mathematics lecturer

Third, the panelist members, for their scrutiny and their thoughtful correction proposals as well as congratulatory
comment over my project presentations. Lastly, my friend Chris Chege 3 and my entire family members and
friends for their lent less support and words of encouragement.

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 DEDICATION

I sincerely dedicate this project proposal to my family for their financial, material and moral support during the
period I started the course and the initial stage for initiating this project proposal. I cannot forget my friends for
their great academic support and who helped me in doing my research .God of mercy bless them.

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ABSTRACT
Through observation, the Nyeri county government is wishing to upgrade gravel road from karatina town
to Ndimaini shopping centre to bituminous standard road. This was because to allow farms to take
produce to market The road is located in Nyeri county Mathira sub-county.it is along Mathaithi-sagana
road.

Due to the blockage of drainage system which make road untidy and leaving road impossible to
pedestrian made it necessary to upgrade the road. By upgrading the road will make all weather road

The survey of the project was done under the following steps; (1) preliminary survey (2 reconnaissance
(3) detailed survey

Material investigation for the propose road was done by field inspector and laboratory test done to
determine the characteristic of the soil in the proposed road.The Soil sample for califonia bearing ration
taken to check strength of the soil. Importance of laboratory test:to check strength of soil, moisture
content and type of material to be used

The proposed road was a flexible road designed on the basis of the road manual part 3 For subgrade ,Out
of the soil test result got after the laboratory test ,it analysis that the soil falls under S2 ,that is, cbr test of
9% were got. During paving of the structure, economic factors, availability of the materials for the
project and type of pavement were majorly considered. This type of road is class D. This road has five
layers;bottom sub-grade,top-subgrade,sub-base,base and top layer .To facilities well draineage facilities
like culvert has been put in consdiration

The chapter with site organization and function in order to complete a work in within a specified time
compatible with estimated cost

The following are the activities to be carried out in the proposed project;

1. Surveying
2. Soil investigation
3. Geometric design
4. Drainage provision
5. Road furniture
6. Designing
7. Material investigation
8. Site administration

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 9. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED
OGL: Original Ground Level

OMC: Optimum Moisture Content

MDD: Maximum Dry Density

CBR: Califonia Bearing Ratio

P.I. :Plastic Index

F.D. :Field Density

L.L. :Liquid Limit

M.C. :Moisture Content

M.M :Millimeter

Dia. :Diameter

%. :Percentage

B.S. :Backsight

F.S. :FOreSight

R.L. :Reduced Level

STN. :Station

S.L. :Shrinkage Limit

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Table of Contents

Contents
DECLARATION...........................................................................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................................iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED...........................................................................................................................v
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................................................vi
1.0 Background information.........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Problem statement..................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Project Objectives...................................................................................................................................................2
1.3 JUSTIFICATION...................................................................................................................................................2
1.4 LOCATION............................................................................................................................................................2
1.5 LIMITATIONS......................................................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO..........................................................................................................................................................4
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................................................................4
2.1 OCCURRENCE OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN THE WORLD.....................................................................4
2.2 OCCURRENCE OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN AFRICA..............................................................................5
2.3 OCCURANCE OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN KENYA.................................................................................7
2.4 OCCURRENCE OF MODERN ROADS CONSTRUCTION..............................................................................8
2.4.1 SETTING OUT DIAGRAMS.........................................................................................................................9
2.4.2EARTH WORKS...........................................................................................................................................10
2.4.3 SUB GRADE STRENGTH...........................................................................................................................11
2.4.4 PAVING CONSTRUCTION........................................................................................................................12
2.4.5 SURFACING.................................................................................................................................................13
2.4.6 SUB BASE....................................................................................................................................................13
2.4.7 RIGID PAVING............................................................................................................................................13
2.4.8 BASE COURSE............................................................................................................................................14
2.5 Soil Stabilization with Cement.............................................................................................................................14

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 2.5.1 Soil Stabilization using Lime........................................................................................................................14
2.5.2 Soil Stabilization with Bitumen.....................................................................................................................15
2.6 Drainage system design........................................................................................................................................15
2.6.1General Drainage Design Aspects..................................................................................................................16
2.6.2 Survey and Investigations..............................................................................................................................16
2.6.3 Road Geometrics Longitudinal Gradient.......................................................................................................17
2.6.4 Pavement Cross Slope/Camber.....................................................................................................................17
2.6.5 Pavement Cross Slope/Camber.....................................................................................................................17
2.6.6 Shoulder Drainage.........................................................................................................................................18
2.6.7 Shoulder Drainage.........................................................................................................................................18
2.6.8 Drainage of High Embankment.....................................................................................................................18
2.6.9 Open Drains...................................................................................................................................................19
2.6.10 Hydrologic Design.......................................................................................................................................20
2.6.11 Hydraulic Design.........................................................................................................................................20
2.6.12 Sub–Surface Drains.....................................................................................................................................20
CHAPTER THREE....................................................................................................................................................21
SOIL ALIGNMENT...................................................................................................................................................21
3.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................21
3.2 SAMPLING..........................................................................................................................................................21
3.3 LABORATORY TEST........................................................................................................................................21
3.3.1 STANDARD COMPACTION TEST (PROCTOR TEST)...........................................................................22
3.3.2 ATTERBERG LIMIT TEST.........................................................................................................................23
3.3.3 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION..............................................................................................................25
3.3.4 CALIFONIA BEARING RATIO (CBR)(7days soak)..................................................................................26
3.4 SURVEY..............................................................................................................................................................28
3.4.1 PRELIMINARY SURVEY...........................................................................................................................28
3.4.2 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY..................................................................................................................29
3.4.3 EXISTING FACILITES................................................................................................................................29
3.4.4 ACCESSIBILITY OF THE SITE.................................................................................................................29
3.4.5 SERVICES (POSTER,TELEPHONES,H.E.P).............................................................................................29
3.4.6 LABOUR.......................................................................................................................................................29
3.4.7 SUPPLIERS AND SUB-CONTRACTING..................................................................................................29
3.4.8 SITE SURVEY..............................................................................................................................................29

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 3.4.9 DETAILED SURVEY..................................................................................................................................30
3.5 LOCATION OF TEMPORARY BENCHMARK (T.B.M) PROCEDURE........................................................30
CHAPTER FOUR......................................................................................................................................................32
4.1 Discussions of findings.........................................................................................................................................32
4.1.1 Resource Adequacy and completion of road construction projects..............................................................32
4.1.2 Staff Competency and completion of road construction projects..................................................................32
4.1.3 Stakeholder participation and completion of road construction projects......................................................33
4.1.4 Procurement Procedures and completion of road construction projects.......................................................33
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS..............................................................................................................................................34
4.3 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................................................34
4.4 Recommendations of the study.............................................................................................................................34
REFFERENCES.........................................................................................................................................................36
APPENDICES............................................................................................................................................................38

viii
ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Background information

Historically, a highway comprehended any path in which members of the public had he right to pass and re-
pass without let or hindrance. The term embraced footpaths, bridge ways, drift ways and so forth. The advent
of the motor vehicle and its peculiar requirements has been increasing destinations between paths over which
workers and riders have a right of way and those ways that are predominantly used by motor vehicles.
The world’s oldest known paved road was constructed in Egypt sometime between 2600and2200BC.Late as
one paved street appearing the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 400BC.Brickpaved street appeared
in India as early as 3000BC.In 1995BC an early subsidiary of road ways evidenced with sidewalks built in
Anatolia. In 500BCD avins. The Great started an extensive road system for the Achaemind Empire
(Persia),including the Royal Road, which was one of the finest highway of its time connecting Sardis to Susa.
In 1992,the first blueprint for a national highway system(The pershing map)was published. The federal Aid
highway Act of 1956 allocated $25Billion for the construction 0f 66,000km long interstate highway system
over a20year period. For my case of study in Kilifi county most of the roads used are gravel and murram roads
which are more difficult to pass during rain season. The material absorbs water heavily in the rainy season
which consequently results welling and softening of the soil.
In day season there is a lot of air pollution due to dust. Also due to a lot of congestion to access Hell's
Kitchens during tourists season's. This therefore necessitates construction of paved road for Hell's Kitchen as
an alternative way.

1.1 Problem statement

There are millions of kilometers of roads all over the world which have helped ease
movement among the world which have helped ease movement among local. communities. However,
maintain the roads has always been a challenge due to government lack enough many to fund road
construction. It is estimated that each year 20 trillion dollars are used for general roads maintenance (World
Banks’s Country Economic memorandum 2009)Besides most of the roads have been difficult to maintain due
to the fact that these roads lack accessibility as well as interference from local communities and administration.
Furthermore most of National government fail to allocate money for county government for road improvement.
This increases congestion in most town due to high population.
Gravel roads are majorly in Kenya and therefore construction of such roads infrastructure in the region faces
enormous challenge to engineers, financial agencies, contractors and government due to maintenance.
The challenge experienced is high cost of cleaning drainage during rainy seasons and providing sustainable
material for the pavement. Good access road allow easy movement of people and good,help in growth of
economy because produce are taken to market.
The status of the roads to access Ndimaini are poor. This means that accessibility is a problem with locals and
access hence taking much longer time to reach town. As a result a need for the tarmac access road arise to

1
eliminate gravel and earth roads which require regular routine maintenance.

1.2 Project Objectives

i. Design and construct an all weather road.

ii. Reduce dust which blows to the property crop near the road thus make environment clean
iii. Reduce blockage of the drainage systems by 91%.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION

Public transport and transportation in general, is a challenging an devour in urban areas.

As ascertain city population grows and as their economic bases shift and involve their housing sector adjust,
even more vehicle are entering each day. One of the effective solutions to decreasing the pressure on town
streets and highways is maintaining a robust public transportation system, but modern urban area brings a hoist
of challenges to the table for transit agencies, some of which can be mitigated by proper and forward thinking
transit management and others which will need to come from municipal level on down. It is therefore
important to construct all weathered roads to reduce maintenance cost.

1.4 LOCATION

The road is located in Nyeri county,8.5kilometers from mathaithi town. It is adjacent to Mathaithi Girls
high school

Maithaithi High school

To Ndmaini Proposed Road

Sagana Roa

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 1.5 LIMITATIONS

The project can offer only limited and short term employment. In view of a generally
high demand for unskilled and long term labor opportunities, the effect of this approach is rather limited in a
larger poverty alleviation context.
Funds provided by the project and generated by budget groups are usually not sufficient for large number of
accidents (if any)during the construction phase.
It is challenging to involve particularly vulnerable groups e.g. single parents with small children, orphans, or
citizen and differently-abled people on road construction activities.
Due to utilization of light and non-mechanical equipment the progress of the road building is comparatively
slow.
Major rainfall may cause the operation to stop which lead delay in completion of the road.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW.

Construction by Roy Holmes [1995] published by college of estate management white Knights reaching a
flexible pavement consist of a layered system of materials which distribute the wheel loads to sub-grade. The
course thickness is determined from the cumulative numbers of standards axles to be carried out.
The road base course consists of materials that remain stable in water and have a CBR of not less than 82%
when compacted. The surface course is subjected to great intensity of stress and must consist of high capability
of resisting subjected stresses. The longitudinal section of the proposed road was drawn clearly starting from
ground level, Formation level and the final proposed road levels. The cross-section areas of the drainage in full
and was calculated as follows:
1/2m[wl+w2][ b/2+mg]-(b2/2)
Or
½[b/2-hk] 2forcut K-m And ½[ b/2+hk] 2forfill K-m

In the road design manual the standard pavement structure was chosen from type 7 where the base and sub-
base materials were graded crushed stones and lime of improved material respectively.
According to solving problems in fluid mechanics volume1 by J.F Douglas(1970) published ELBS Longman,
the chezy’s formula for calculating of discharge throughout the pipes. V=c√mi
Where c=chezy’s coefficient
Also manning’s formula is:
V=1/N xM2/3xC 1/2
Where N=the roughness coefficient which increases with the roughness of the pipe from 0.09 for brass to
0.022 for dirty cast iron sheet.
The civil engineering method of measurement(CESMM)second edition published by Thomas Telford
London(1985)was used in taking off the sub-base, road base and surfacing courses, kerbs, channels, traffic
signs and surface markings. Soil mechanics by Sidney Rosenak 1963 published by BTB at sford ltd London
system of soil classification chart where the soil sample identified was well graded silts and carrying out soil
test.

2.1 OCCURRENCE OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN THE WORLD

The oldest constructed roads discovered to date are former Mesopotamia now known as Iraq. These stone
paved streets data back to about 4000BC in the Mesopotamia cities in Babylon.
The location in the land of Sumerian people offered fertile soil and with irrigation crops and livestock were
raised successfully. The Sumerian’s used meticulous brickmaking skills forming identical bricks for building.
After drying they would take them to the site of temple and set them in place with bitumen. Bitumen is the

4
natural sticky black substance in asphalt was used in Europe and America.

Glass ton burry, the ancient Isle of Aaron and some rest England, was the site of an interesting discovery when
timber roads were discovered in a swampy area. Gaston burry known for King Arthur’s legends and believed
to be an actual site of come lot, has had pilgrim age since ancient times as it is home to Glaston burry Abbey.
Bringing early traffic into the area and requiring roads for the transportation of carts and animals drawn
wagons, the timber roads advanced roadways were in the future. Strangely a Scottish man named John Mecalfe
born in 1717 and blinded at age six, build many miles of roads and bridges in Yorkshire England. The roads
were built in three layers. Large stones a mixture of road material and a layer of gravel. Two other Scottish
engineers, Thomas Telford and John London Mc. Adam are credited with the first modern roads. They also
designed the system of raising the foundation of the road in the center for easy water drainage.
Telford improved roads built further analyzing stones thickness road traffic, road alignment and gradient
slopes. This method became the norm tenfold is well known for many engineering success involving the
bridges, canals, road harbors and docks. The Menai suspension Bridge in North wales completed in 1826
considered one of the greatest examples

2.2 OCCURRENCE OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN AFRICA

In the old Kingdom of ancient Egypt a time of grand architectural beginning about 4600 years ago. Demands
for building stones for pyramid and telephone led to opening of many quarries in the low cliffs near the Nile
River. To make it easier to transport the heavy stones from one of these quarries. The Egyptians lad what may
have been the world’s first saved roads. Research geologists mapping the ancient Egyptians stone quarry have
identified a seven and a half mile stretch of road covered with slabs of the sandstones and limestone and even
some logs of petrified wood. The pavement they concluded, facilitate the movement of humans led sloaded
with basal stone from a nearby quarry for shipment by large across the lake and on the Nile to construct sites.
The Egyptians paved road with an average width of six and half feet, ran across desert terrain 43 miles
southwest of modern Cairo. Remnants of the road were first observed early this century but its full extent and
significance were not recognized until last year when Dr. Boen and Dr. Harrell discovered a large basalt quarry
at one end of the road. This dark volcanic stone was favored in monumental construction for pavements inside
mortuary temples at Giza. The site of the great pyramids and also for royal Sarcophagi. Egypt ologists have
suggested that the Blackrock was popular for funerary uses because it symbolizes ,the darklife-giving Nile
mud. The road run from the quarry to the Northwest shore of ancient Lake Moeris, now vanished, which will
have provided a water link to the Nile each summer in the flood time. As the two geologists reported the
pavement stones bore no deep grooves or other marks that might have been made by direct contact with the
wooden rumors of the stone lade sleds. They speculated that the logs were laid over the stones. No similar
pored roads have been found near other quarries, Dr. Harrell said, “noting that perhaps the distances involved
maze pavements impractical”. Africa has relatively poor history of international Co-operation in Building.
Colonia powers and later completing superpower and regional powers and later completing super power and
region al powers generally did not encourage road links between their respective spheres except where

5
absolutely necessary and newly independent African states border restriction were often tightened rather than
relaxed in border disputes as away of protecting internal trade as a weapon in border disputes and to increase
the opportunities for official corruption.
Poverty affects development of international highway when scarce financial resources
have to be directed towards internal rather than external properties. The agencies developing the highway
network are influenced by the idea that road infrastructure stimulates trade as and so alleviates poverty as well
as benefiting health and education services to be distributed to previously incredible areas.
On July 1971 Robert K.A. Gardiner the Executive secretary of the united Nations Economic Commission for
Africa(UNECA)established the Trans African Highway bureaucratic to oversee the development of a
continental road network.
As well as preventing progress in roads construction was and conflicts have led to the distraction of roads and
river crossing have prevented maintence and have often closed vital means. Sierra Leon, Liberia. The DRC and
Angola are all rebuilding phases after war. War in DRC set back road infrastructure that country by decades
and cut the principal route between East and West Africa. In recent years security considerations have
restricted road travel in the southern part of morocco Algeria, Lybia and Egypt as well as In Northern Chad
and muchos Sudan.

Nine highways have been designated in a rough rid of six mainly East-West routes and three mainly north-
south routes. A fourth North South routes is formed from the extremities of two east-west route. Starting with
the most northerly the east-west route are.

-Trans-African highway1(TAH1),Cairo–Dakarhighway,8,636kilometers

-Trans-African Highway5(TAH5)Dakar–NdjamenaHighway4496kilometers

-Trans-African Highway6(TAH6)Ndjamena–Djiboutihighway4219kilometers

-TransAfricanhighway7(TAH7)DakartoLagosHighway4010kilometrs

-TransAfricanHighway8(TAH8)LagostoMombasahighway6259kilometers

6
 -TransAfricanhighway9(TAH9)BiiratoLobitohighway3523kilometers

North-south-Routes

-TransAfricanhighway2(TAH2)AlgierstoLagoshighway4504kilometers

-TransAfricanhighway3(TAH3)TripolitoWindhoekhighway10808kilometers

-TransAfricanhighway4(TAH4)CairotoGaboronehighway10228kilometers

2.3 OCCURANCE OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN KENYA

Before the advent of the railway and auto mobiles in Kenya, the main mode of transport on the main land from
Mombasa to the interior parts of Kenya was walking. Ox-drawn wagon to carry cargo, horse drawn carriage
and mules. The vital mean of transporting bulky luggage oxen and mules were constantly infested and killed
by tsetse flies bites the oxen and mule were wrapped in American cotton cloth brought America to Zanzibar
then Mombasa merchants. Camels were used as means of transport in the 19th century and early 20th century.
Owing to their ability to survive in arid and semi-arid regions such as the north east Kenya they are still the
main means of transport to date. Donkeys are still used in remote areas to transport water, animal feed,
firewood etc. The first road built in Kenya was the Mackinnon Scalter road, a 1000km oxcart earth work track
from Mombasa to Busia whose construction started in 1890 by the imperial. British east Africa company.
(IBEA)prior to its construction, traders(in goods and slaves)and explorers to the interior parts of Kenya used
caravan routes. Completion of the construction of the roads was taken over by the British government
following financial difficulties facing IBEA. In 1896 the British Government started building the Kenya–
Uganda railway from the port of Mombasa to Lake Victoria, Kisumu. The railway reached Port
Florence(Kisumu) in 1901 and between 1902 and 1903 reached Kampala. The Mackinon-Scalter road as
means of long distance travel felt in to disuse between 1896 and 1901 after the Uganda railway over took it.
The railway replaced porters as a means of transport from Mombasa to the interior and back. The first auto
mobile in Kenya, the De-Dion-Bouton was lowered from a steamship at Mombasa old port in December
1903.There were several challenges facing the pioneer motorist such as George Wilson. There were no
garages, no petrol was shipped in the same ship it came packed in four gallon tin similar to kerosene debes.
The mode of packing at the time. Though the map to the interior was not complicated the environment was not
forgiving. The road cut across the Nyika (Taru desert-Scrubland)pas Kilimanjaro through the Kapiti plains to
the bamboo covered Kikuyu Hills, then down through the Great Rift-Valley (Maasai County)and over the
forested highlands to the Nile Basin(Lake Victoria) penetrating the interior presented forbidding sections of the
road creating a barrier between Mombasa and the interior. The first tarmac road in Kenya was introduced in
1992.A 20 meter long test strip was bituminized and 500m the center of Nairobi. By 1930 asphalt had spread to
other towns such as Mombasa, Nakuru, Eldoret and Kisumu. In 2005,Kenya’s government was prepared to
rebuild the country’s dilapidated roads after decades of neglected. At that time there was limited data on the

7
size of the country’s road network. The world Balk stepped into support the extensive roads rehabilitation
project investing $1billion in International Development Association(IDA) financing over 13years.
Today,162,000 kilometer of Kenya roads are documented and the county is currently working on recording and
updating the condition of the existing network. Josephat Sasia, World Bank lead transport specialist in
Nairobi, credit policy, legal and institutional reforms as the main drivers of the projects success. There forms
included assigning categories of roads to specific entities for management and accountability. Thirteen years is
a short period to assess the success even more so there habilitation of dilapidated physical infrastructure.
“When the World Bank got involved there were multiple agencies in charge of planning and executing on the
transport port folio”said Sasia. This reality triggered a major institutional and policy reforms over haul dating
back to 2005 which led to creation of three transport organizations in 2007.The Kenya National Highway
Authority(KENHA),The Kenya Urban Roads Authority(KURA)and the Kenya Rural Roads
Authority(KeRRA).There forms enabled the institutions to facilitate and focus on rehabilitation of the
countries highways, urban and rural roads. Taking on this reforms wasn’t easy, said Saisia. The process
involved shifting power outside the Authority of roads which previously handled all the classification and
rehabilitation of all roads. This minimized over all and management and accountability. The leadership of the
Ministry of roads supported the changes, establishing an interior government task force to steer the process.
Developing a road policy to speed up rehabilitation works was one of the first reforms on the agenda.

2.4 OCCURRENCE OF MODERN ROADS CONSTRUCTION

The methods of constructing roads have changed a lot since the first roads were built around 4,000BC made of
stone and timber. The first Roman roads were stone paved, built in North Africa and Europe from military
operations. Road construction techniques were gradually improved by the study of road traffic stone thickness,
road alignment and slope gradients, developing to use stones that were laid in a regular, compact design and
covered with smaller stones to produce a solid layer. Modern roads tend to be constructed using asphalt and
concrete.

8
 2.4.1 SETTING OUT DIAGRAMS

This is carried out following the dimensions specified in layout drawings. A commonly used setting out
procedure is the profile board method. A series of boards that show the exact level 1 meter above the
completed construction level are placed at intervals along the proposed line of the road. A profile board with a
fixed height, called the traveler is used for controlling the excavated levels between these profiles boards. By
placing the traveler in sight-line between two levels boards, it can be seen whether or not the excavating has
been carried out to concrete levels and adjusted accordingly. The level of each profile board is controlled using
a line level which is short spirit level hung from any Lon string.

9
 2.4.2EARTH WORKS

Earth works is one of the major works involved in road construction. It involves the removal of top soil, along
with any vegetation, before scraping and grading the area to the finished formation level. This is usually done
using a tractor shovel, grader or bulldozer. Below the formation level, the soil is known as the subgrade. It is
essential that the strength of the subgrade is tested prior to earthwork beginning.
Most earthworks are formed by cut and fill and the type of fill material must be considered, not only in terms
of its physical properties, but on the conditions in which it is to be used and the methods of compaction.
Depending on its quality, compressible subsoil may be removed or stabilized. If the cost of full or partial
excavation of subsoil is uneconomical and would be likely to result in consolidation, sand wicks or sand drains
may be used. Sand wicks are sand filled boreholes beneath the road embankment that give greater stability to
the soil by decreasing the length that water has to travel in a drainage should be provided to deal with seepage
through pavements and verges, from higher ground and a result of the seasonal rise and fall of the water table.

10
 2.4.3 SUB GRADE STRENGTH

The required thickness of the pavement is determined by the subgrade strength so it is desirable to make the
subgrade as tough as possible. The strength of the subgrade can be achieved by using the following techniques.

- Removal of poor arterial in cutting and replacing with selected fill.

- Compacting subgrade to a high dry density.

- Providing adequate subsoil drainage.

- Soil stabilization methods such as the use of cement bituminous materials and chemicals.

The subgrade strength will decrease the moisture content increases so protection may be required if it is to be
left exposed for any length of time.

2.4.4 PAVING CONSTRUCTION

11
Once the subgrade has been prepared and drainage or buried services installed, the paving construction can
begin. Paving can either be flexible or rigid. There are pros and cone to each type depending on the specific
needs of projects. Rigid pavements tend to have lower maintenance costs a longer design life and higher
flexural strength, but flexible pavements tend to have lower ability to expand and contract with temperature
and so do not need expansion joints. Flexible paving consists of materials applied in layers directly over the

subgrade to which the traffic loads are distributed. To prevent permanent deformation and therefore uneven
running surface, the thickness of individual layers must be capable of distributing such loads. The subgrade is
compacted with the sub-base on top of it. On top of this is laid the surfacing which is made up of the base layer
and the wearing course.

12
 2.4.5 SURFACING

The wearing course is the upper layer of bituminous material, often denser and stronger than the base layer.
The thickness depends on the material specification and the amount of wear that is expected. Desired
properties are good non-skid capabilities, minimal glare and acceptable durability. The main materials that are
used are Hot Rolled Asphalt(HRA),Dense Bitumen Macadam(DBM),Dense Tar Macadam(DTM)and Porus
Asphalt(PA) porus Asphalt is especially suitable as it is an open graded material that is designed to allow rapid
drainage of surface water, thereby reducing spray as well as tyre noise. The base will typically have a
minimum thickness of 60mm and is usually made of dense bitumen macadam or asphalt.

2.4.6 SUB BASE

This is placed in a layer usually not exceeding 150mm over the subgrade after water proofing is complete.
Various materials can be used but it is common for crushed stone or dry concrete laid and compacted by heavy
rollers.

2.4.7 RIGID PAVING

Rigid paving consists of reinforced of un reinforced in-situ concrete slab laid over a thin granular base course.
The rigidity and strength of the pavement enables the loads and stresses to be distributed over a wide area of
the subgrade. Longitudinal and transverse joints are required in rigid paving between the slabs, limiting the
stress applied due to subgrade restraint and providing non for expansion and contraction movements.

13
 2.4.8 BASE COURSE

The base course in a pavement is a layer of material in an asphalt roadway, racetrack, riding and a transporting
field. It is located under the surface layer consisting of the wearing course and sometimes an extra binder
course. Typical base course thickness ranges from 100 mm to 150mm and is governed by underlying layer
properties.

2.5 Soil Stabilization with Cement

The soil stabilized with cement is known as soil cement. The cementing action is believed to be the result of
chemical reactions of cement with siliceous soil during hydration reaction. The important factors affecting the
soil-cement are nature of soil content, conditions of mixing, compaction, curing and admixtures used. The
appropriate amounts of cement needed for different types of soils may be as
follows:
Gravels–5to10% sands -7to 12percent Silts–12to15%, and Clays–12–20%. The quantity of cement for a
compressive strength of 25 to 30kg/cm2 should normally be sufficient for tropical climate for soil stabilization.
If the layer of soil having surface area of A(m 2),thickness H(cm)and dry density rd (tones /m3),has to be
stabilized with percentage of cement by weigh to the basis of dry soil, cement mixture will be and, the amount
of cement required for soil stabilization is given be Amount of cement required, in tones=
Lime, calcium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate and fly ash are some of the additives commonly
used with cement for cement stabilization of soil.

2.5.1 Soil Stabilization using Lime

Slaked lime is very effective in treating heavy plastic clayey soils. Lime may be used alone or in combination
with cement, bitumen or fly ash. Sandy soils can also be stabilized with these combinations. Lime has been
mainly used for stabilizing the road bases and the subgrade. Lime changes the nature of the adsorbed layer and
provides pozzolanic action. Plasticity index of highly plastic soils are reduced by the addition of lime with soil.
There is an increase in the optimum water content and a decrease in the maximum compacted density and the
strength and durability of soil increases. Normally 2 to 8%of lime may be required for coarse grained soils and
5 to 8% of lime
may be required for plastic soils. The amount of fly ash as admixture may vary from 8 to 20% of the weight of
the soil.

14
 2.5.2 Soil Stabilization with Bitumen

Asphalts and tars are bituminous materials which are used for stabilization of soil, generally for pavement
construction. Bituminous materials when added to a soil, it imparts both cohesion and reduces water
absorption. Depending upon the above actions and the nature of soils, bitumen stabilization is classified in
following four types:
Sand bitumen stabilization
 Soil Bitumen stabilization
 Waterproofed mechanical stabilization, and
 Oiled earth.

2.6 Drainage system design

Adequate drainage is a primary requirement for maintaining the structural soundness and functional
efficiency of a road.
 Pavement structure including subgrade must be protected from any ingress of water, otherwise
over a period of time, it may weaken the subgrade by saturating it and cause distress in the
pavement structure.
 That is why rapid dispersal of water from pavement and subgrade is a basic
consideration in road design.
 Because of inadequate surface drainage, the structural stability of pavement is
Undermined by:
 Weakening of pavement structure and subgrade through infiltration of water
from the top, and erosion of shoulders, verges and embankment slopes caused by water running
off the pavement.
 Mechanism of failure on account of in adequate drainage facilities in a pavement system should
be understood and suitable remedial measures taken against it to ensure desired performance
during the service life of the pavement.

15
2.6.1General Drainage Design Aspects
 Proper geometric design of the road by crowning the carriageway or one side or two side cross
fall, giving proper cross slope to the shoulders and verges, providing requisite longitudinal
gradient etc.
 Water from road and the surrounding are a shall be successfully intercepted and led away to
natural outfalls.
 The engineer must build adequate cross–drainage structures at river crossings and minor streams.

2.6.2 Survey and Investigations

 Survey and investigations is a basic necessity for designing a drainage system which may involve
the following:
 Recourse bearing on road drainage such as Aerial photography
 Factors bearing on road drainage such as rainfall, topography and natural drainage of the area,
cross fall and longitudinal profile, existing drains and internal drainage of pavement layers etc.
should be recorded.

16
2.6.3 Road Geometrics Longitudinal Gradient
 Flatter slopes both longitudinal and transverse slowdown the flow of rainwater over the roadway
and decrease the drainage capacity.
 For better internal drainage of pavement layers, especially of granular material, a slight
longitudinal gradient is most preferable.
 A minimum longitudinal drainage gradient is most preferable
 A minimum longitudinal drainage gradient of 0.3%is adequate.

2.6.4 Pavement Cross Slope/Camber

 In geometric design pavement cross-fall or camber could be made to slope either on one side or
on both sides with a crown in the middle of the road pavement.
 On hill roads preference generally is to drain the carriage way water towards the hillside
particularly where the road banking is susceptible to erosion so that the drain on the road way
could carry away the discharge safely to proper outfall.
 Camber should not be less than 1 in 40.

2.6.5 Pavement Cross Slope/Camber

 For a given surface type the steeper values may be adopted in the areas having high intensity of
rainfall and lower values where the intensity of rainfall is low.
 For high type bituminous surfacing or cement concrete, the cross fall or camber should be
between 1 in 60 to1 in 50.
 For thin bituminous surfacing, the camber should be between 1 in 50 to 1 in 40.
 Earth shoulders 3 to 4%(1 in 25)

17
2.6.6 Shoulder Drainage
 The effective method of maintaining the shoulders is to have paved or hard shoulders instead of
earth shoulders.
 A common defect in some of the road is occurrence of shoulders at levels higher than pavement
surface. In such situations, during rain-the water on road surface Does not find a free outlet and
accumulates on top of it. Such defect where shoulder blocks the drainage should be rectified.

2.6.7 Shoulder Drainage

 Hard shoulders are preferable to earth shoulders from overall considerations of improved
pavement performance.
 Earth surfaced median should not be crowned or cross sloped to drain on the road pavement
because washed away soil may deposit on road pavement making it slippery and accident prone.

2.6.8 Drainage of High Embankment

 The problem of erosion of slopes and shoulders is most severe in high embankments(usually more
than 8m)having steep slope in longitudinal direction such as approaches in bridges.
 Where high embankments are on longitudinal slopes, longitudinal and cross drains may be
provided.
 The longitudinal drains may be provided at the edges of the roadway.
 Once water is channelized in these side drains, it is led down the slopes by means of stepped
outfalls or lined chutes at about 10meter intervals ultimately discharging into side channel at the
bottom.

18
2.6.9 Open Drains
 Open drains are known as side drains, catch water drains, intercepting drains or gutters.
 Type of road traffic and rainfall intensity are some of the main factors which influence the shape,
location and capacity of open drains.
 The choice of cross-section of open drains is generally limited to 3-types triangular, trapezoidal
and rectangular.
 The following linings are feasible on the drain surface for preventing erosion but it requires
proper maintenance so that undesired growth of vegetation may nor reduce the flow capacity of
drain:
 Turfing
 Stone/Brick Masonry Concreting
 Stone Slab Lining

19
2.6.10 Hydrologic Design
 Hydrologic analysis is a very important step prior to the hydraulic design of road drainage system
 Factors which affect run-off are size and shape of drainage area, slope of ground, geology, soil
types, surface infiltration and storage.
 The rational method is an universally accepted empirical formula relating rainfall to run-off:
 Q=0.028PAIc
Where Q=Discharge(Peak run-off)Inc./sec.
P=Co-efficient of run-off for the catchment characteristics.
A=Area of catchment in hectares.
c=Critical intensity of rainfall in cm per hour.
The suggested values of ‘P’ for use in formula are given in the Table 2.

2.6.11 Hydraulic Design

For uniform flow in open channels, the basic relationships are expressed by the Manning’s formula:
Q=1/nAR2/3S1/2
V=1/nR2/3S1/2
Where Q=discharge in cu. m/sec.
V=Mean Velocity m/sec.
n=Manning’s roughness co-efficient
R=Hydraulic radius in m which is area of flow-cross-section divided by wetted perimeter
S=Energy slope of the channel which is roughly taken as slope of drain bed
A-Area of the flow cross-section in m2 29

2.6.12 Sub–Surface Drains

 Two main objectives of sub surface drains are to lower level of water table and to drain out
underground water. To be effective, they should not be less than 0.5m below the subgrade level.
 The sub surface drains may be provided with perforated pipe or open jointed solid
 pipe in a trench with backfill around it. The internal diameter of the pipe should not be less than
150mm.
 The designing of subsurface drain by Darcy’s law is as follows;
Q=Kia
Q=Discharge in m3/ sec
A=Cross-sectional area in m2

20
 CHAPTER THREE

SOIL ALIGNMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Materials investigation for the proposed road was done by field investors and laboratory test according to BS
1995 to determine the characteristics of the soil in the proposed road.

3.2 SAMPLING
Soil samples were taken at an interval due to the challenges given and the trails pits were fugat 1m2
excluding 0.35 of the topsoil. Therefore, the trail pits were dug in the following:
Trialpit I 0.000
Trial pit II 0+90
Trial pit III 0+180

3.3 LABORATORY TEST

In the laboratory the following test were carried out
 Particle size distribution
 Atterberg limit tests
 Standard compaction
 CBR 7day soak

21
 TRAIL PIT CBR % SUB GRADE STRENGTH AFTER 4
DAYS SOAK

I 3.4 52

II 9.2 _

III 5.4 52

3.3.1 STANDARD COMPACTION TEST (PROCTOR TEST)

It was carried out to determine the strength of the soil to be used in earthworks. A standard proctor test was
done T99/T180 in each trial pit and graph was plotted to determine the MDD and OMC of test samples as
shown on the proctor form.
Apparatus
 A cylindrical metal mould (110mm interval diameter)and internal effective height of 100.5 mm
i.e1000cm 3 volumes
 The mould is fitted with a detachable base plate and are movable extension approximately
50mmhigh 5kg rammer
 A balance readable and accurate to1g
 Palette knife(with a blade approximately to100mm land and 20mm wide)
 A straight edge
 A 25mm BS test sieve
 A large metal tray
 10tins for moisture content determination

Procedure
1.Take a 2.5kg sample of air dried soil passing 20mm BS sieve
2.Weigh the mould with base plate attached and record as ml,
3.Place the mould on a solid base and compact the soil in three approximate equal
22
layers each 27 blows.
4.Remove the extension and the excess amount of soil struck off by straight edge making it level. The
weight of the mould is taken and recorded as M2.
5.The compared soil specimen is taken and put in a tin for content determination
6.The more samples of the soil of 2.5kgs were weighed and each added 100ml, 200ml and then the
procedure described above followed.

CALCULATIONS
The bulk of ach compacted specimen was calculated as=m2-m1
1000
Where m1=mass of mould+base(g)
M2=mass of mould+base+soil(g)
Dry density(d)=100r 100+W
Where W=moisture content
MDD average=1220+1310+1360.13 =34.4

SAMPLE NO L.L% P.L% P.I% S.L% CONCLUSION

1 75 34 41 18 Very high

2 62 30 32 16 High plastic
clay
3 70 32 38 7
High plastic
4 64 35 29 15
clay

High plastic silt

CONCLUSION
The maximum dry density ranges from1200–1400kg/cm3
and it shows that the soil is not suitable for foundation in engineering construction unless improvement is
done.

23
3.3.2 ATTERBERG LIMIT TEST

The most accurate and modern method of determining the plastic limit is the core penetration. Alternative
is the casagrade apparatus based on the BS1377 which is not very accurate. Atterberg limit include liquid
limit, plastic limit and plasticity index.
The following tests were carried out:
 Liquid limit(LL)
 Plastic limit(PL)
 Liquid limit(LI)
 Linear shrinkage(LS)
 Plasticity index(PI)
 Shrinkage limit(SL)

(a)LIQUID LIMIT

Done in accordance to BS1377 To 1975 by use of cone penetrometer. Moisture content corresponding to
22mm cone penetration was taken as a liquid limit as shown in the form.
Average LL=62+63+683=64.3

(b)PLASTIC LIMIT
After the soil sample passed through BS425 sieve and mixed with distilled water. It is formed a plastic
homogenous paste which was rolled into a thread of about 3mm diameters paste which it began to crack.
Plastic limit in each sample was determined as shown in the form.
Average PL=34+39+503=41

(c)PLASTIC INDEX
PI=LL-PLPI=64.3-41
PI=23.3

(d)LIQUID INDEX

LI=W-PI*100 PI

Where W=water content

(e)SHRINKAGE LIMIT

Soil passing BS 425 SIEVE TEST is mixed with distilled water to form paste which is placed in a mould
to air dry slowly until it ceased. Results are calculated in %
Average SL=(I-length of dried specimen)*100

24
Initial length
ANALAYSIS

SAMPLE NO L.L% P.L% P.I% S.L% CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

As per the above from the manual part III and the test figure from the soil, it shows that the soil is high
plastic silt.

SAMPLE NO L.L% P.L% P.I% S.L% CONCLUSION

1 75 34 41 18 Very high

2 62 30 32 16 High plastic
clay
3 70 32 38 7
High plastic
4 64 35 29 15
clay

High plastic silt

3.3.3 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The main aim of classifying a soil sample is to obtain a consistent and internationally recognized
description of the soil sample. This facilitates interchange of general information about similar soil and
forms a base for decision or former test required for the solution of particular engineering problems.

 APPARATUS FOR DRY METHOD

British standard sieves

1mm,2mm,5mm,7.5mm,10mm,15mm,30mm,and appropriate receivers
Balance
Sieve brush and a wire brush
At least 6 metal trays(300mm diameter–400mm)

25
After quartering, materials were passed over different sizes where each sieve retained a certain
percentage of the material until the last sieve retains the remaining. The percentage of each retained and
passes were calculated as shown in the form of each trial pit, and the graph plotted By the use of the
graphs on each pit coefficient of uniformity curvature was calculated
TRIAL PIT I
CU =D60 =12 =34.29
D10 0.35
CZ=D(30)
2= 0.1 =0.02
D10D60 12×0.35

 APPARATUS FOR WET METHOD

 British standard sieves

 1mm,2mm,5mm,7.5mm,10mm,15mm,30mm,35mm and appropriate receivers. Balance
 Multiple slot type(riffle boxed)
 A thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining temperature of 1050 c to 1100c
 At least 6metal trays
 Two large metal or plastic water tight trays
 Scoop
 Sieves brushes and wire brush
 Sodium haxametaphosphate
 A quantity rubber rubbing about 6mm bore

CALCULATIONS

%retained on 150mm sieve= mass(retained in150mm sieve)100

Total mass

The rest of them asses in the different sieves were calculated in a similar manner
The sample was weighed and soaked for 24hrs and then washed. The results are recorded and the graph
plotted as shown in the form.

3.3.4 CALIFONIA BEARING RATIO (CBR)(7days soak)

The objective of this test was to establish the behavior and strength of the soil in its worst condition so as
to determine whether it needs to be improved or not.

26
APPARATUS
 5mm and 20mm BS sieve
 3 cylindrical metal moulds having an internal diameter of 152mm and internal effective height
of1.7mm with a detachable base plate and 50mm deep collar
 Cylindrical metal plunger 5
 California bearing ratio plunger
DYMANIC 3 POINT COMPACTION
Procedure
-A 6kg of the material passing 20mm BS sieve for each specimen was obtained.
-The present moisture content of the material was determined before mixing with water
-The OMC of the soil was taken from the average values of the two tests in the proctor test.
-The amount of the water to be calculated as
-Amount of water(W)=OMC–PMC×6000
Where OMC=Optimum moisture content
PMC=present Moisture content
-The mould was weighed together with the baseplate and the weight recorded
-The soil was put on a tray and mixed thoroughly with the amount of water calculated inn three different
samples. The filter paper of 150mm diameter was put in according to the number of layers in each mould

-A sample portion of the mixed materials was taken for the determination of the moisture content
-Each layer was compacted with a 4.5kg rammer, first specimen 65blows to each, second specimen
5layers 35blows to each and third specimen 5layers 10blows to each
-The collar was removed and excess material trimmed parallel to the top using a straight edge and each
specimen was weighed recording the weight
-Bulky and dry density of each specimen was calculated.
-The surcharge weight was placed over the specimen and the moulds immersed in water
-Dial gauges were placed on the top of the soil steam and the final dial gauges recording read and
recorded. The specimens were soaked for four days
-On the fourth day, the dial gauge was put on the soil steam and the final dial gauge reading recorded.
-The moulds were removed from the water and allowed to drain water for about 15minutes.Each
specimen was penetrated from the top and the button sides. Calibration was given to the Kenya Bureau of
standard to the ministry of public works as follows
2.5mm penetration=13.02per division
5.0mm penetration=19.85per division

CALCULATIONS
The forces as2.5×100=%CBRat2.5mm 13
The force at 5.0×100=%CBRAT5.0MM 20

27
ANALYSIS FOR CBR

TRIAL PIT CBR % SUB GRADE STRENGTH AFTER 4

DAYS SOAK

I 3.4 52

II 9.2 _

III 5.4 52

After calculation of CBR value of the subgrade from 5-6.5%hence concluding the sub grade can be
classified from S1 to S2.
TRIAL PIT CBR% SUB GRADE STRENGTH AFTER 4
DAYS SOAK
I 3.4 52
II 9.2 _
III 5.4 52
Source: (road design manual part III)
RECOMMENDATION ON SOILTESTS RESULTS
Out of the results, it showed that the soil has high plasticity, clay silt soil and cannot bear any foundation
in engineering construction. Therefore it needs to be improved and stabilized before laying the pavement
layers over it.

28
3.4 SURVEY

It was done under the following steps:

 Preliminary survey
 Reconnaissance survey
 Detailed survey

3.4.1 PRELIMINARY SURVEY

It was carried out by visiting different departments to acquire more information about the site and the
neighboring areas.

The information includes:

I. The altitude of the area
II. Geological report of the area
III. Population density and pattern of the area
The sources of this information are:
 NCA office
 Land department office
 KURA,KERRA and KENHA department
The objectives of this survey are:
i. To have general outline boundaries of the site
ii. To know the type of the soil on the site
iii. To have a rough estimate cost required during the actual activity
iv. To have an idea of the weather conditions of the areas which help to prepare a working schedule

3.4.2 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

3.4.1.1 THE SITE
Familiarizing of the site will be done before analyzing noting some types of boundaries, obstacles,
existing structures, natural facilities, accessibility of the site among other things. It is located adjacent to
the Marafa health center. This is about 20m from the Mighty Marafa high school.

29
3.4.3 EXISTING FACILITES
Identifiable facilities around from the site include drainage pipes and electrical cable line.

3.4.4 ACCESSIBILITY OF THE SITE

The site is easily accessible from Malindi -Baricho at Marafa trading center.

3.4.5 SERVICES (POSTER,TELEPHONES,H.E.P)

The presence of hydro-electric power in the institute eases the accessibility of the power on the site. Due
to advanced technology, mobile phones are the most efficient means of communication.

3.4.6 LABOUR
Presence of idle people around the areas as well as educated students in Marafa Polytechnic
gives an assurance of learning available skills and unskilled labor.

3.4.7 SUPPLIERS AND SUB-CONTRACTING

Most of the materials will be readily available from Malindi town. In case of a required sub -contract,
he/she will be chosen from within Kilifi County.

3.4.8 SITE SURVEY

This will be done by visiting the proposed site noting the obstacles, establishing temporary benchmarks
and marking the changes by use of ranging rods and writing the drawings along the existing facilities i.e.
class pavement and verandas. After this survey we carried out actual survey work.

3.4.9 DETAILED SURVEY

Leveling instruments used include:

i. Dumpy level
ii. Tripod stand
iii. Ranging rods
iv. Leveling staff
v. Tapes
vi. Drop arrows

30
3.5 LOCATION OF TEMPORARY BENCHMARK (T.B.M) PROCEDURE

A temporary benchmark will be established with reference to an existing bench mark at kerb outside the
institute main gate which is named T.B.M OB, established from taking a series on flying levels.
The survey data will be blocked in a leveling sheet and used to draw a graph with the
ground levels(drawing)number 011 after determining the reduced levels at each ranging rods and tapes.

31
SUBJEC T UPGRADING OF PROPOSED DESIGNER PRISCAH HARUSI
GRAVEL ACCESS ROAD FROM
MARAFA CENTRE TO HELL'S 5221010929
KITCHEN INDEX NO

KENYA NATIONAL PAPER NO

EXAMINATION COUNCIL

CALCULATION OF AREA

ch 0 + 020

ch 0 + 000 k = 6.2 , m =2 , n = 2, h = 2 , b = 6

k = 6.3 , m =3 , n = 2, h = 2 , b = 6 w1 = k b + hm

k+m 2

w1 = k b + hm

k+m 2

w1 = 6.2 6 + 2.2 x 2

6.2 + 2 2

w1 = 6.3 6 + 2.2 x 3

6.3 + 3 2 = 5.29M2

= 6.50M2 w2 = k b + hm

k-m 2

w2 = k b + hm

k-m 2

w2 = 6.2 6 + 2.2 x 2

6.2 - 2 2

32
CH 0 + 180 Scale

Hor. 1: 100

Vert. 1: 100

2.5 2.5 3.5

Formation Level

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Discussions of findings

The study made the following findings on the variables

4.1.1 Resource Adequacy and completion of road construction projects

Regarding the influence of availability of resources the study revealed that lack of finances and skilled
personnel influenced effective completion of construction projects in Embakasi, Nairobi County. This is in
line with the literature review where Gibbsetal. (2002)argues that the lack of adequate financial resources to
carry out project activities is another challenge faced by most organizations. A good number of road
construction projects lack adequate funding for their activities. This means that the little resources available
are channeled to actual implementation of project activities while not considering how far the funds will
sustain a given project activity. Most in formants reported the challenge of resources constraint in impacting
completion of construction projects. This concurs with Feuerstein (1986)view, who observed that lack of a
resource is a constraint on the completion of project activity. The respondent had reported that the factor of
availability of skilled and semi-skilled laborers was a challenge to completion of construction projects. They
also reported availability of construction materials, and construction equipment and in ability to secure loans
due to lack of collateral also impacted on completion of construction projects. It is critical to set aside
adequate financial and human resources at the planning stage. The required financial and human resources
for timely completion of road construction projects should be considered within the overall costs of
delivering the agreed results and not as additional costs.

4.1.2 Staff Competency and completion of road construction projects

Regarding objective two which sought to determine the influence of competency of staff incompletion of
construction projects, the study revealed that competency of staff influenced effective completion of
construction projects. Cuban(2001)observed that there are many ways to define and measure the adequacy of
staff competency, capacity and the effectiveness of agencies tasked with projects. Thus there are also many
ways to define indicators. For construction project, in most countries the desired outcome is sustainable
management of construction project. The effectiveness of agencies tasked with construction project
administration depends to a large extent on the agencies ‘staff capacity relative to the demands placed upon
them. The study also established that lack of proper professional and academic qualification, turnaround time,
lack of accountability and responsibility among staff and accuracy levels influenced completion of construction
projects. Kent(2011)postulates that the ability of an agency’s staff to meet demands for its services depends on
both its numbers and the skills and expertise of staff members bring to the job. An agency need to have at least
a minimum necessary mix of skills and expertise and a sufficient number of staff with appropriate skills
relative to the scale of its responsibilities, measures for example in terms of size of its area or territory or

34
volume of its production. Most respondents reported that competency of staff influenced project completion to
very great extent. This is in agreement with Gardner(2003)who argued that skilled personnel staff entrusted
with project execution should have required technical expertise in the area. From the findings we can deduce
that for construction projects to be effective, there is need for qualified personnel.

4.1.3 Stakeholder participation and completion of road construction projects.

Ferreira (1999)argued that influence of stakeholder participation on construction projects opportunities

enhances public participation that enhances timely completion of these projects. The extent to which
stakeholders participate ensures people decision making processes and capacity of stakeholders at different
levels. To engage with other projects stakeholders on construction projects ’policy decision-making and
implementation, existence and effectiveness of conflict resolution and grievance mechanisms is important.
Davies(1998)argues that stakeholders may not necessarily agree on the measured results or their interpretation
and assessment. However, the areas and extent of disagreement among stakeholders can, in themselves,
provide valuable insights and point out the issues requiring greater attention. The dialogue and informed
discussion engendered by the results of indicator measurements are often more important than the measured
results. Most respondents reported that road stakeholders engagement was not very effective this is in
contradiction to Ferreira,(1999)who noted that influence of stakeholder participation on effective
implementation of projects provides opportunities for public participation hence it need to be effectively
managed. Respondents further reported that project objectives did not clearly reflect the overall road
construction goal. This contradicts Lemos (2000)who looked at multi-stakeholder processes and observed
that they can aid in the specification and selection of appropriate construction project. Many respondents were
also in agreement that stakeholder’s engagement plays a vital role in enhancing the internal processes and on
the performance of construction projects.

4.1.4 Procurement Procedures and completion of road construction projects

Most of the respondent agreed that procurement procedures lead to completion of construction projects on
time .Construction of roads projects use the Government of Kenya
procurement guidelines. Filling for the procedure can be along and tedious process.
However the major challenge arises incases where there are differences in the
guidelines in respect to the matter. For fear of appearing to have misprocure, the project
teams take upon themselves to ensure they fulfill the different requirements of the
guidelines.

35
 4.2 DATA ANALYSIS

Data Analysis: Influence of Design and Construction Features on the Response and Performance of New
Flexible and Rigid Pavements examines the relative influence of design and construction features on the
response and performance of new flexible and rigid pavements. According to the report, base type seems to be
the most critical design factor in achieving various levels of pavement performance for both flexible and rigid
pavements, especially when provided within-pavement drainage. Sub grade soil type and climate also have
considerable effects on the influence of the design factors. While the report supports the existing understanding
of pavement performance, the methodology in the study offers systematic outline of the interactions between
design and site factors as well as new insights on various design options.

4.3 CONCLUSION

Most road projects today involve modifications to existing roadways, and the planning,
operation, and maintenance of such projects often are opportunities for improving
ecological conditions. A growing body of information describes such practices for improving aquatic and
terrestrial habitats. The assessment of the cumulative impacts of road construction and use is seldom
adequate. Although many laws, regulations, and policies require some consideration of ecological effects of
transportation activities, such as road construction, the legal structure leaves substantial gaps in the
requirements. Impacts on certain resources are typically authorized through permits. Permitting programs
usually consider only direct impacts of road construction and use on a protected resource, even though indirect
or cumulative effects can be substantial(for example, effects on food web components).
The incremental effects of many impacts over time could be significant to such resources as wetlands or
wildlife.

4.4 Recommendations of the study

Based on the findings of this study and conclusion made, the study makes the following
recommendations:

1. Based on the findings and conclusions, the study recommends that there should
be stakeholder engagements to ensure that ideas and perspectives are represented,
members of stakeholder group should be invited to participate in project scope
identification and planning. Participation improves the quality of project management
and that of evaluations accuracy of information, increased credibility and acceptance of
findings, and better correspondence to the practical concerns of stakeholders.
2. The study recommends that there where necessary, skill levels should be

36
augmented to meet the needs of the projects. An ongoing investment in developing
such capacity for construction project team is necessary. The study also recommends
that the various road departments should allocate enough resources needed for
construction of the project and monitoring and evaluation and agree on a practical
arrangement to support finance of the project and monitoring and evaluation and agree
on a practical arrangement to support finance the associated activities.
3. The study also recommends that organizations should consider adopting modern information and
communication technologies in carrying out monitoring and evaluation activities.
4. Finally the study further recommends that government leaders should offer the
necessary support and good will to enhance completion of construction projects.
Unnecessary influence and interference on project completion should be deterred.
The many opportunities that arise for mitigating or reducing adverse environmental
impacts in modifications and repairs to existing roads should not be overlooked.
Environmental considerations should be included when plans are made to repair or
modify existing roads, as well as when plans are made to build new roads.
More attention should be devoted to predicting, planning, monitoring, and assessing the
cumulative impacts of roads. In some cases, the appropriates partial scale for the
assessment will cross state boundaries, and especially in those cases, collaboration and cooperation
among state agencies would be helpful.

37
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project".Daily Nation.Nairobi.Retrieved 27March 2016.

4.^Wamalwa,Nicholas(19June2015)."TransNzoia to build dual carriage

road".The Star(Kenya).Nairobi.Retrieved 27 March 2016.

5.^Nkirote,Miriam(8September2014)."Sh52Billion Kenya–Tanzania Highway to

Boost East AfricanTrade".Nairobi:Construction kenya.com.Retrieved 29

March 2016.

6.^Ihucha,Adam(30August2014)."US$600million highway to link Kenya,

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Mandera".Daily Nation.Nairobi.Retrieved 1 April 2016.

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Kenya".Globefeed.com(GFC).Retrieved1April 2016.

38
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39