INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOSPITAL

BUILDING

Submitted for the award of

Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering

REPORT SUBMITTED BY:

M. Ahtesham
Roll No.: 16721

SUBMITTED TO:

DEPARTMENT OF THE CIVIL ENGINEERING

TECHNOLOGY ABASYN UNIVERSITY PESHAWAR
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Industrial Training Report entitled

“CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOSPITAL BUILDING” submitted to the
DEPARTMENT OF THE CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY work
done by M.Ahtesham.
this Industrial Training report is prepared and submitted by me. I want to
express that I have successfully followed the activities in the site and achieved
my mission during the internship periods.
I can assure that the report contains all the events and procedures that I
observed and performed during the internship periods.

Student Signature

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me a great pleasure in expressing my sincere thanks and profound gratitude to

Allied Engineering Consultant for valuable guidance and being helpful during the entire
training program an also towards to be a professional throughout the term work. I am
thankful to entire project activity that helped me a lot during this practical training
program.
We express our ineptness and gratitude to Assistant Engineers, for his guidance and care
taken by him in helping us to complete the project work successfully.

We express our deep gratitude to (Junior Engineers), for his valuable suggestions and
guidance rendered in giving shape and coherence to this endeavor. We are also thankful
to his team members for their support and guidance throughout the period of project.

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 ABOUT COMPANY

The Allied Engineering Consultant. Have It headquarter at Lahore and Regional office
is house # 7, Warsak Rd, Sher Ali Town, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa. The
company is registered in the highest category “A class” for the infrastructure works.
With a well experience staff and having successfully completed overall various types
of projects.
AEC provides consulting to leading companies in building their engineering and
development strategies for the future. We also help a diverse group of government,
institutions, and nonprofit organizations with their engineering challenge.
.
Our clients include over 300 governmental, national and multinational companies,
touching every major industry. Greater than 60 percent of our work is with clients
whom we've served before. More than 100 of our client relationships last 15 years or
longer Clients rely on our consultants to be uncompromising in their analytics and a
source for ideas, insights, technical know-how and solutions-oriented innovativeness.
There are various sites of this company which are running all over the company like:
new building for C & W, Hospital building, and Muhmand Dam etc. some of the
projects are under the construction and some of them are completed.
And a number of skilled engineers and supervisors are working in this firm in order to
take care of the project.
Up to now almost all the mini and major projects of this company have succeeded and
the company uses good quality of materials and infrastructure for construction
purpose and that’s why it is one of the most grossing companies.
We approach problems from an integrated, clients eye view perspective, taking into
account the trade-offs that our client organization must make when making
engineering decisions.

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO GOVT. HOSPITAL BUILDING ………….….6

Chapter 2 SOIL AND AGGREGATES TEST…………………………………….8

Chapter 3 HOSPITAL BUILDING DRAWINGS SNAPSHOTS………….…….16

Chapter 4 WORK EXPERIENCE FROM TRAINING………………………….18

Chapter 5 RESULTS …………………………………………………………….29

Chapter 6 CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSIONS……………………………….30

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 CHAPTER: -1

INTRODUCTION TO GOVT. HOSPITAL BUILDING

Executive summary
A Hospital is required in the “Nowkhar city which is highly population city in KPK.
and the area of hospital building is 10000sq. meters.
The Government tender the project and the contract is won by a company for delivering
the building to be used as a hospital.
And The proof checking consultant is the “Allied Engineering Consultant”.
Due to constraint on time, concurrent engineering has been used on activities (other than
the floors construction) which otherwise would have been planned in water fall method.

Background, Objective and Goal:

Background:
There was a long-felt need for a hospital in the Nowkhar which is home to around
50000 inhabitants. Earlier Patients had to travel to the nearest City which is too much
away, for a patient to reach the hospital at the earliest. The town inhabitants usually
resisted going to the hospital in causes of minor diseases owing to the traveling time. So,
it was decided to construct a local hospital. The Approval of this hospital is well received
among the residents and doctors as well. This will improve health of inhabitants, increase
life expectancy, reduce traveling time and cost.
Objective:

The objective of the project is to achieve exposure into a new area of expertise,
profitability, credibility, competitive advantages and publicity.

Goal:
To have the Hospital Building ready in the period of time.

6
 1.3 Requirement specifications

Product Requirement:
Requirement specifications in the form of Product Breakdown Structure (PBS).

7
 CHAPTER: -2

SOIL AND AGGREGATES TEST

Soundness test of aggregates:

PROCEDURE

8
 Types of Soil Tests for Building Construction

• Moisture content test

• Atterberg limits tests
• Specific gravity of soil
• Dry density of soil
• Compaction test (Proctor’s test)

Moisture Content Test on Soil

Moisture content or water content in soil is an important parameter for building construction.
It is determined by several methods and they are
• Oven drying method
• Calcium carbide method
• Torsion balance method
• Pycnometer method
• Sand bath method
• Radiation method
• Alcohol method
Of all the above oven drying method is most common and accurate method. In this method
the soil sample is taken and weighed and put it in oven and dried at 110o +5oC. After 24
hours
soil is taken out and weighed. The difference between the two weights is noted as weight of
water or moisture content in the soil.

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Specific Gravity Test on Soil

Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to that of the water. It is
determined by many methods and they are.
• Density bottle method
• Pycnometer method
• Gas jar method
• Shrinkage limit method
• Measuring flask method
Density bottle method and Pycnometer method are simple and common methods. In
Pycnometer method, Pycnometer is weighed in 4 different cases that is empty weight (M1),
empty + dry soil (M2), empty + water + dry soil (M3) and Pycnometer filled with water
(M4) at room temperature. From these 4 masses specific gravity is determined by below
formula

Dry Density Test on Soil

The weight of soil particles in a given volume of sample is termed as dry density of soil. Dry
density of soil depends upon void ratio and specific gravity of soil. Based on values of dry
density soil is classified into dense, medium dense and loose categories.
Dry density of soil is calculated by core cutter method, sand replacement method and water-
displacement method.

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 Core Cutter Method for Soil Dry Density Testing

In these methods a cylindrical core cutter of standard dimensions is used to cut the soil in
the ground and lift the cutter up with soil sample. The taken-out sample is weighed and
noted. Finally, water content for that sample is determined and dry density is calculated
from the below relation.

Sand Replacement Method for Soil Dry Density Testing

In this method also, a hole is created in the ground by excavating soil whose dry density
is to be find. The hole is filled with uniform sand of known dry density. So by dividing
the mass of sand poured into the hole with dry density of sand gives the volume of hole.
So we can calculate the soil dry density from above formula.

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 Atterberg Limits Test on Soil

To measure the critical water content of a fine-grained soil, Atterberg provided 3 limits
which exhibits the properties of fine-grained soil at different conditions. The limits are
liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit. These limits are calculated by individual
tests as follows.

Liquid Limit Test on Soil

In this test, Casagrande’s liquid limit device is used which consist a cup with moving up
and down
mechanism. The cup is filled with soil sample and groove is created in the middle of cup
with proper tool. When the cup is moved up and down with the help of handle the groove
becomes closed at some point.

Note down the number of blows required to close the groove. After that water content of soil is
determined. Repeat this procedure 3 times and draw a graph between log N and water content of soil.
Water content corresponding to N=25 is the liquid limit of soil.

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 Plastic Limit Test on Soil

Take the soil sample and add some water to make it plastic enough to shape into small
ball. Leave it for some time and after that put that ball in the glass plate and rolled it into
threads of 3mm diameter.
If the threads do not break when we roll it to below 3mm diameter, then water content is
more than the plastic limit. In that case reduce water content and repeat the same
procedure until crumbling occurs at
3mm diameter. Finally find out the water content of resultant soil which value is nothing
but plastic limit.

Shrinkage Limit Test on Soil

In case of shrinkage limit, the water content in the soil is just sufficient to fill the voids of
soil. That is degree of saturation is of 100%. So, there is no change in volume of soil if we
reduce the shrinkage limit.
It is determined by the below formula for the given soil sample.

Where M1 = initial mass

V1= initial volume
V2= volume after drying Pw
= density of water.

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 Proctor’s Compaction Test on Soil

Proctor’s test is conducted to determine compaction characteristics of soil. Compaction of

soil is nothing but reducing air voids in the soil by densification. The degree of
Compaction is measured in terms of dry density of soil.

In Proctor’s Compaction Test, given soil sample sieved through 20mm and 4.75 mm
sieves. Percentage passing 4.75mm and percentage retained on 4.75mm are mixed with
certain proportions.
Add water to it and leave it in air tight container for 20hrs. Mix the soil and divide it into
6 – 8 parts. Position the mold and pour one part of soil into the mold as 3layers with
25blows of ramming for each layer.
Remove the base plate and Weight the soil along with mold. Remove the soil from mold
and take the small portion of soil sample at different layers and conduct water content
test. from the values find out the dry density of soil and water content and draw a graph
between them and note down the maximum dry density and optimum water content of the
compacted soil sample at highest point on the curve.

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TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGY

1. ALL SHUTTERING EQUIPMENTS

• 1.1 SOLDIERS
• 1.2 MS PIPES
• 1.3 CHANNEL SECTIONS
• 1.4 PROP JACK
• 1.5 U JACK
• 1.6 F and C
• 1.7 C CULP
• 1.8 SHUTTERING PLATES
• 1.9 SUTIES

2. ALL LAB EQUIPMENTS

• 2.1 COMPRESSION TESTING MACHINE
• 2.2 SIEVES
• 2.3 SIEVE SHAKER
• 2.4 MODIFED PROCTAR TEST
• 2.5 TESTING CUBES

3. EXCAVATING MACHINES
• 3.1 CATERPILLAR MACHINE
• 3.2 JCB

4. ALL SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

• 4.1 AUTO LEVEL
• 4.2 TOTAL STATION
• 4.3 PLAIN TABLE
• 4.4 STAFF
• 4.5 TAPS

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 CHAPTER: -3

HOSPITAL BUILDING DRAWINGS SNAPSHOTS

FIGURE: - Hospital building drawing sheet

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 DRAWINGS SNAPSHOTS

FIGURE: - Hospital building drawing Sec 1-1

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 FIGURE: - Hospital building drawing R/F Detail Wall – RW4

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 CHAPTER: -4

WORK EXPERIENCE FROM TRAINING

From my training which I was done in Allied Engineering Consultant in the Hospitals
building, I learned a lot work experience.
Like I was learned the purpose of construction of these hospital building.
When I came to know about the purpose learned that how loads are calculated on the
building considering all the aspects and by this how much deep the foundation is made.
According to it how much steel and concrete are required to bear the load and which
variety of former and latter is used in different purpose.
All the things which I saw there was new (practically) and it was a great experience when
I made use of them and working with all the engineering, supervisors, great experience.
So I will try to describe some of the activities that I have performed in my hosting
company. Throughout the internship session.

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Site Cleaning

A clean and organized construction site is crucial for the success of any project. to ensure
your construction site is clean, safe, and ready for the next phase of work. team will
meticulously remove debris, waste, and other unwanted materials from your site, keeping
it free from hazards and ensuring smooth progress of your project. We utilize
environmentally-friendly practices and dispose of waste responsibly, adhering to all local
regulations and guidelines.

Site Excavation

Excavation plays a fundamental role in the construction industry. it is a practice that

involves the removal of rocks or soil from the ground in order to prepare foundations for
buildings. Several different processes are used in excavation, including trenching, digging,
dredging, and site development. These processes will require unique techniques, tools, and
machinery to get the job done right.

FI
G UR
E :

KOBELCO MACHINE FIGURE: CATERPILLAR MACHINE

Formwork
Formwork is a temporary structural element, designed and erected to safely supporting
vertical and lateral load of fluid concrete until the concrete sets and support self and other
applied loads on the structure.
One should always remember that these works should be constructed in such a way that
removal of formwork can be done easily as planned. In our site, we use steel formworks

20
 Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a temporary structure used to support a work crew and materials to aid in
the construction, maintenance and repair of buildings, bridges and all of man-made
structures. Scaffolding supports formwork and other structures (such as precast girders).

Footing

footing is one of the most important parts of a structure which transfers loads of a
structure to the underlying soil. The selection of suitable types of footing generally
depends on the following factors:
The depth of the soil at which safe-bearing strata exist.
The type and condition of soil.
The type of superstructure.
There are different types of footing used for building construction Isolated Footings
foundation is used.
Isolated Footings-These types of footings may be square, circular, or individually
rectangular slab of uniform thickness provided under each column.

P.C.C for footing-Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) is also called as Cement Concrete (CC)
or Blinding Concrete. It is used for leveling, bedding for footings, grade slabs, concrete

21
roads etc. PCC is used to provide non-porous, rigid, impervious, firm and leveled bed for
laying RCC, where earth is soft and yielding.

22
 FIGURE: PCC OF FOOTING

Footing Rebar Details and Detailing Methods

Let’s go through them one by one.

Distribution of Reinforcement-In general, we distribute the reinforcement requirement

uniformly. However, when the axial load increases, we need to increase the reinforcement
area close to the column where the bending moments and the shear forces are higher.
If lc > (3c/4 + 9d/4), two-third of the required reinforcement should be concentrated
within a zone from the centerline of the column to a distance 1.5d from the face of the
column.
Otherwise, reinforcement can be uniformly distributed over lc.
here, c – column width, d – effective depth, lc – half the spacing between column centers
(if more than once column) or the distance to the edge for the pad (whichever is greater).

Crack Control Reinforcement-In general, crack control reinforcements are not included
for footing rebar details. The unreinforced surface is always in compression when loads are
applied. However, when required by the design, we have to provide them.
In the following instances, we could consider providing crack control reinforcements. This
information is indicative only, we must check during the design for the requirements.

 When the thickness of the footing exceeds 500mm, we may check for cracking. The
crack width of the section could be considered and limited as required by the design
or specification. Usually, we limit the crack width to 0.3mm for normal structures.
 When the thickness footing increases, reinforcement could be provided to avoid
cracking of immature concrete. The article, early thermal cracking could be

23
 referred to for more information and method of calculating the reinforcement
requirement based on the design crack width.
 Further, the use of higher-grade concrete-like C40 could also lead to the cracking of
concrete when the thickness is higher due to the heat of hydration.

Shear Links-Design shear links shall be provided as a hook. the typical arrangement of the
hook is as follows. The spacing of the hook in either direction shall be as required by the
design.
These types of links are provided only when there are top reinforcements and it is required
by the design only.
 Typical footing rebar details obtained for the detailing guideline standard method of
detailing of structures. This information has developed in line with Eurocode 2.

Anchorage Length in Footing Rebar-Anchorage length in footing is important as we do

for the other types of structural elements. The length required to transfer the stress in the
reinforcement to the concrete is called the anchorage length.

Casting for footing-Column can be cast by providing proper shuttering and by placing
concrete properly in it. on the site, some time we are prefer either concrete mixer or by
pumping. For small quantity of concrete volume, we normally depend on machine-mix
concrete and for large concrete quantity we order ready-mix concrete. I would suggest
machine-mix concrete Because, if you use moving pump with ready-max concrete and if
you want not to exceed 5 feet height range for dropping concrete that would be difficult.

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 FIGURE: - CASTING OF FOOTING

COLUMN

A column is a vertical structural member transmitting axial compression loads with or

without moments. Column support mainly vertical loads from the floors and roof and
transmit these loads to the foundation. Usually column is called compression member,
because the compression forces or stresses dominate their behavior. In addition, most
columns are subjected to moment as well as axial load. The bending action may produce
tensile forces over a part of the cross section.
Any building structure loads increase as we go down to the ground and so bottom
structural members are properly configured that they carry all super structural loads above
it and transfer safely to the foundation. Hence the sections of columns in upper stores are
reduced as they have to carry lesser loads. But center lines of columns must coincide
accurately for various columns of different stores.

Column Reinforcement Details

where are concentrating on column reinforcement details and the basic requirement to be
adopting column rebar detail is prepared.
the column reinforcement details as per the BS 8110 Part 01. In addition, some of the
information is referred to as Eurocode 2.
Let’s discuss column reinforcement detailing requirements.
Minimum Reinforcement in Column-The minimum area of reinforcement in the column
is 0.4% of the cross-sectional area of the column as per BS 8110.
100As / Ac = 0.4
Maximum Reinforcement in Column-The maximum area of reinforcement of columns is
as follows. The below values are calculated as a percentage of the gross cross-sectional area
of concrete.
25
  Vertically cast column 6%
 Horizontally cast column 8%
 Lapps in vertically/horizontally cast column 10%
Containment Links-The diameter and spacing and the number of links per section shall be
decided based on the following guideline.
 Link Diameter: at least one quarter the size of larges compression bar or 6mm,
whichever grater.
 Link Spacing: Maximum spacing shall be 12 times the smallest compression bar.
 All the column reinforcements should have at least one link passing them.
 No rebar in the column should be further than 150mm from the restraining bar. That
is if a reinforcement bar spacing is more than 150mm from the restraining bar, that
bar needs to be restrained with a link.
Lapps with Limited Cover-When the diameter of both bars at the lap exceeds 20mm and
the cover is less than 1.5 times the size of the smaller bar, transverse links shall be provided
throughout the lap length.
At the lap, at least link diameter one quarter the size of the smaller bar. Link spacing shall
not exceed 200mm
Cranking Reinforcement -The minimum slope of the crank is maintained at 1:10.
However, this value may be increased up to 1:20 for smooth load transferred.
Shear links could be provided at the crank to avoid the development of internal tensile
stresses. They may be spaced at 75mm as indicated in the following figure. This is one of
the best column reinforcement details to be implemented.
For further information, relevant code shall be referred to. This article on column
reinforcement details is based on the detailing rules specified on BS 8110 Part 01 and
some of the sketches are obtained from the Standard Method of Detailing Structures by
IStructE.

BEAM
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending moment, shear and torsion effect. Beams generally carry vertical gravitational

26
 forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e., loads due to an earthquake or
wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which
then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members.
Beam reinforcement-Generally, there are three types of reinforcement in beam namely
negative, positive and stirrups reinforcement.
Positive bars: These kinds of bars are mainly used to resist the positive moment. This
moment is mostly developed at the mid span on the beams and these positive bars are
placed at the mid span.
Negative bars: These are bars used to resist negative moment. Most of the time they are
found at the support of the beams. They are placed on 1/3 of span length from the center
of the column to top, where bending moment is maximum.
Stirrups: There is bars that placed to provide diagonal shear resistance. The spacing of
stirrups near the support is closer than the span since there is a high shear force up to one-
third of the beam and maximum at “d” distance from the center of the beam column
connection. The main purpose of stirrup in beam is to resist the diagonal shear faller or to
resist the continuous diagonal crack of beam

Figure-position of beam reinforcements

27
SLAP

Slabs are structural part of a building that transmit load acting on it normal to their plane
and then to beam. It is widely used for firm floors and roof of the building. Their aim is to
provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of a building, equipment’s,
furniture’s and sometimes-internal partitions. They are supported by either beams or walls
or directly by columns.

Slab Reinforcement Details

Slab reinforcement details should be done by following the relevant code of practices and
standards method of detailing of reinforcements.
Mainly, there are three types of slabs in cast-in-situ concrete.
One way spanning slabs
Two-way spanning slabs
Cantilever slabs
In general, there are similar requirements for one-way, and two ways slab when slab
reinforcement detail drawings are prepared.
Let’s discussed the design code requirement specified for slab reinforcement details.
The following slab reinforcement arrangements are specified in the BS 8110 Part 01.

Minimum Percentage of Reinforcements-Provide reinforcement area of 0.13%.

( 100As/Ac = 0.13)
Anchorage of Bars at a Simply Supported End-If the desing ultimate shear stress at the
face of the support is less than half the appropriate Vc, a straight length of bars beyond the
centerline of the support equal to either one-third of the support width or 30mm, whichever
is the greater.
Spacing of Bars-The clear spacing of bars shall not exceed lesser of 3d or 750mm, where,
d is the effective depth.
The detailing rules could also be applied as per Eurocode 2.

28
 As indicated above, spacings for laps shall be followed and the gap between the lapping
bars shall not be less than 50mm or 4∅ whichever lesser. Here, ∅ is the bar diameter.
Crack Control – when crack widths are not checked by calculations No Further
Checked Required
a) Slab depth does not exceed 250mm when the steel grade is 250
b) Slab depth does not exceed 200 mm when the steel grade is 460
c) Slab reinforcement percentage less than 0.3% (100As/bd < 0.3%
When above a, b, and c conditions do not apply, bar spacing shall be limited as following
Table (Table 28 of BS 8110 Part ) where the reinforcement percentage exceeds 1% or the
values given in Table 28 divided by the reinforcement percentage for lesser amounts.
The spacing of Shrinkage Reinforcements-Slab reinforcement details are the same as the
wall reinforcements as specified in the Cl 3.9.4.19 in the BS 8110.
Provide 0.25% of the concrete correctional area for Grade 460 steel.
Simplified Rule for Slab Reinforcement Details-The simplified rules can be applied
when slab reinforcement detail drawings are prepared when the following condition is met.
 The slab is designing for uniformly distributed loads
 In continuous slabs, design loads are approximate equal
The following figure is taken from BS 8110 for reference.
According to the above detail in the BS 8110, slab to reinforcements need to extend 0.3 x
span(from the face of the support) for continuous support. However, 100% area of steel
needs to be continued up to 0.15 x span.
This can be achieved by an alternative bar arrangement as indicated in the following
figure.

29
 Otherwise, as an average, we could continue the top reinforcement 0.25 x span (from the
face of support). This is not indicated in the guidelines, but we could consider doing it for
simplicity.

30
 FIGURE: - SLAB DESIGN OF STEEL

CHAPTER: -5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the training, I learned a lot of things which was very new to me.
How the different types of infrastructure building are made what safety we have to keep in
mind, how much amount of material to be taken etc. all the things wear new to me.
Secondly the purpose of adopting such kind of project was also a great challenge and it
was a great experience in working in these types of condition.

31
 CHAPTER: -6

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSIONS

My industrial training in such kind of typical hot atmosphere was a great challenge and
experience
and from this, I came to know that three is a difference between theoretical and practical
things i.e.
what we study in books and what we perform in field.
i. High temperature
ii. Blockage in pipe line
iii. Rainy season (Weather)
iv. Local labor

High temperature: The behavior of concrete at high temperatures is influenced by

several factors, including the rate of temperature rise and the aggregate type and stability.
Abrupt temperature changes can cause cracking and spalling due to thermal shock, and
aggregate expansion can also produce distress within the concrete.
High temperatures also affect the compressive strength of concrete. Above 100º C, the
cement paste begins to dehydrate (loses chemically combined water of hydration), which
gradually weakens the paste and paste aggregate bond.

32
 Blockage in pipe line:
Causes of Blockages: There are basically three main causes of pump line blockages: a

deficiency in the mix design; problems with the pipeline itself; and the human factor, or
operator error.
Rainy season (Weather):
A delay in construction can be frustrating and costly. The longer it takes to complete the
project, the more time it’ll be before the next one can get started. Plus, some delays can
result in additional purchase not originally accounted for, such as added material or
equipment.
Wood Frames Morph and Crack – Untreated wood loves to soak up rain like a
sponge. Trouble is, this excess moisture can cause swelling, morphing, and cracking in
wooden frames. A warped frame in the beginning leads to poor foundation
construction, eventual leaks, and unnecessary headaches over time

Loose Soil Leads to Erosion and Structure Resettling – Heavy rains can wash
away significant amounts of soil which may compromise the stability of a foundation as
the ground dries
and the structure resettles into the earth. Uneven settling like this leads to cracks in the
foundation, weakened walls, and could result in expensive, yet avoidable, repairs.

Fitted Structures Don’t Fit – Rain damage and morphing can cause swelling which

results in fitted structures, like door and window frames, failing to fit as designed. Failing
to create a tight seal due to an improper fit lead to excessive heating and cooling bills due
to drafts and leaks.

Metal Structures Are Subject to Rusting – Selecting metal supports instead of wood
may result in a more stable structure over time, but rain damage in the early stages of
construction can still have a damaging effect over time. Most specifically in the form of
rust, which can be just as much of a nuisance as the damaging effects of rain an untreated
wood.
33