INTRODUCTION

1.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES

The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a Skills Training programme
established by Industrial Training Funds in 1973 by Decree No. 47 of 1973 designed to expose
and prepare students of Universities, Polytechnics/Colleges of Technology/Colleges of
Agriculture and Colleges of Education for the Industrial work situation they are likely to meet
after graduation. The scheme are also meant to exposed students to working manners of some
organization in the country and provides the necessary experience of working with some tools
and machinery that are usually not available in their institutions.
Institutions faced a greater and growing concern among our industrialists that graduates of
various institutions of higher learning lacked adequate practical background studies which is a
qualification for employment in industries. Thus, the employers were of the opinion that
theoretical education going on in higher institutions was not responsive to the needs of the
employers of labour. That challenge lead to the establishment of the Student Industrial Works
Experience Scheme (SIWES) and made as a general requirement for completing a Degree
programme.
The SIWES programme is financed by the Federal Government of Nigeria through the
Industrial Training Fund (I.T.F) board, in most cases the capital used is partially obtained from
taxing the registered companies and the FGN donates the remaining funds.
1.1 Aims and Objective
i. It provides students with the opportunities to apply their educational knowledge in real
work and industrial situations, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practices
ii. It exposes students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery
that may not be available in their institutions.
iii. To expose students to the general ethics of practical and industrial works
iv. It provides an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial
skills and experience during their course of study.
v. To affect better understanding and performance of students as they return to their
different institution after training.
 vi. It gives industrial organization the opportunity to access the calibers of students and also
prepare them for various future challenges.
1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF TRIACTA NIGERIA LIMITED
Triacta (Nigeria ) Limited is a Civil Engineering Construction Company
incorporated in defunct Bendel state of Nigeria with RC No. 108553 in the year 1988
providing service on all forms of Civil Engineering Work. It has developed sufficient
confident in turnkey contract Civil Engineering Construction Works including road and
bridge construction and rehabilitation.
Triacta has constructed projects throughout Nigeria. It works for both the public
and private sectors on small and large projects. It has achieved a reputation for timely
delivery and innovative management because of its pool of multi-national human,
materials and technological resources that is capable of assuming total project
responsibility and of providing a comprehensive project delivery program which includes
engineering design, construction management, procurement, materials management,
logistics and site support service
1.3 PROJECT EXECUTED WITHIN THE STATE
Triacta Nigeria Limited since its setting up in Yola, the state capital, the firm has played an
integral role in the infrastructural development of both rural and urban road network within the
state and has executed numerous projects of high excellence some of which are:
 Ongoing Construction on First Ever Grade Interchange and underpass in North East
Nigeria at Police Round About, Jimeta Yola, Adamawa State.
 Ongoing reconstruction of 112Km long two lane asphaltic single carriage way Federal
Road linking Mayo - Belwa, Toungo Ganye and Jada Local Area council of Adamawa
state.
 Construction of the first ever Fly over Bridge in the North-East Nigeria at Total Filling
Station Junction, and expansion of existing Galadima Aminu Way from four lane double
carriage way to eight lane double carriage way, Jimeta Yola Adamawa State (May,
2021).
 Design and Construction of 3.2Km, 6.6Km, 7.8Km, 3.8Km long two lane asphaltic single
carriageway with drains within Hong, Gulak in Madagali, Minchika and Jada L.G.A of
Adamawa state respectively, (May,2021)
  Design and construction of internal road network linking various unit and segment within
Adamawa State University (ADSU), Mubi Adamawa State (April, 2018).
 Construction of Jambutu, Demsawo, Wuro Jabbe Township Road with drains within
Yola North Adamawa State, April 2017.
 Design and Reconstruction of 2.8Km Modibbo Adama Road, Yola Town within Yola
South L.G.A Adamawa State, (Nov.2017).
 Design and Construction of Mubi Township Road within Mubi North and Mubi South
Local Government of Adamawa State, (Nov.2016).
 Design and Construction of 37Km long two lane asphaltic single carriage Kiri- Shelleng
Road with 50m two span bridge within Shelleng Local Government area of Adamawa
state.
1.4 ORGANIZATIONAL CHART
1.5 ORIENTATION

TEST ON DIESEL
INTRODUCTION
Diesel fuel is a complex compound of hydrocarbons obtained by distillation of crude oil, in
general it is any liquid fuel specifically designed for used in diesel engine whose fuel ignition
take place, without any spark. Density parameter is an important quality parameter of diesel. It
helps to differentiate between fast burning or adulterated diesel from a good one. Low diesel
quality can also lead to poor combustion efficiency thereby increasing cost.
The diesel hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the density of the diesel intends
to be used, the hydrometer shall be of
Aim:
i. To determine the density of a given Diesel
ii. To check the presence of water in a given diesel
APPARATUS:
 Glass hydrometer
 Measuring cylinder
 Funnel
  Water Detector paste
 Scoop
 Glass rod

PROCEDURE
i. The diesel sample was obtained poured inside the graduated measuring cylinder
ii. The density hydrometer was gently lowered into the measuring cylinder and tilt
downward till the hydrometer is still from floating
iii. The reading on the hydrometer was recorded at the meniscus cut on the hydrometer
stem while it is stationary and freely floating in the sample to the nearest unit
iv. The procedure was repeated for two to three times to obtained the average value.
PRECAUTION
Any air bubble on the surface of the sample in the surface of the cylinder should be mopped
up, before readings are taken and also there should be no air current in the environment in
which the test is being carried out.
 v. A small quantity of diesel was poured inside the scoop, and was stir up with the aid of a
glass rod.
vi. A small quantity of the water detector paste was carefully squeezed inside the diesel.
Allow it to dissolve for 30 sec.
OBSERVATION
The density of the diesel was read on the hydrometer and the average value was recorded to
the nearest unit, the colour of the paste didn’t not change from gold to red, therefore water is
not presence in the diesel.
SLUMP TEST
slump Concrete test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or consistency of the
freshly mixed concrete prepared at the batching plant, concrete slump test is carried out from
batch to batch to check the uniform quality of concrete during construction, the slump test is
the most simple workability test on fresh concrete involving low cost and provide result
immediately, due to this fact, it has been widely used for workability. The slump is carried out
as per procedure mentioned in B.S
Aims:
Apparatus
i. Slump Cone
ii. A metal porous plate
iii. Measuring rule/Tape
iv. Wheel barrow
v. Hand trowel
vi. Petroleum Jelly/Oil
vii. Tamping Rod

TEST ON FRESH CONCRETE

i. The internal surface of the cone was cleaned and oil was applied to it.
ii. The cone was placed on a smooth horizontal non porous base plate
iii. The cone was filled with the prepared concrete into three different layers
 iv. Each layer was tamped with 25 stroke of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a
uniform manner over the cross section of the cone. For the subsequent layer, the
tamping should penetrate into the underlying layer.
v. The excess concrete was removed and the surface was leveled with the aid of the
trowel.
vi. The mortar or water leaked out between the cone and the base was cleaned
vii. The cone was raised immediately and slowly in the vertical direction from the concrete.
viii. The slump was measured as the different between the height of the cone and the height
of the concrete specimen being tested.

RESULT OF TEST
The result of the slump test was measured and recorded as 40mm
DISCUSION OF RESULT
The concrete slump test measures the behavior of a compacted inverted cone shape concrete
under the action of gravity. The consistency of fresh concrete before its sets is usually governed
by the water/cement ratio:
TEST ON HARDENED CONCRETE
Many tests are used to evaluate the hardened concrete properties, either in the laboratory or
in the field. Some of these tests are destructive, while others are nondestructive. Tests can be
performed for different purposes; however, they are mostly conducted to control the quality of
the concrete and to check specification compliance. Probably the most common test performed
on hardened concrete is the compressive strength test, since it is relatively easy to perform and
since there is a strong correlation between the compressive strength and many desirable
properties (Neville, 1996; Mehta and Monteiro, 2013)
DEFINATION OF BASIC TERMS
Curing: is the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture content and temperature in the
concrete for a definite period of time
Compressive strength: It is the maximum compressive load that can be taken by concrete per
unit area without braking.
Load: a load may be defined as a combined effect of an external force acing on an object,
Density: is defined as weight per unit volume
Concrete: may be defined as a plastic mixture of cementing materials (like cement or lime) with
sand and crushed stones or gravels in the presence of water.
THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
The compressive strength test is the test most commonly performed on hardened
concrete. Compressive strength is one of the main structural design requirements to ensure
that the structure will be able to carry the intended load. As indicated earlier, compressive
strength increases as the water–cement ratio decreases. Since the water–cement ratio is
directly related to the concrete quality, compressive strength is also used as a measure of
quality, such as durability and resistance to weathering. Thus, in many cases, designers specify a
high compressive strength of the concrete to ensure high quality, even if this strength is not
needed for structural support.
AIMS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
To determine the compressive strength of a Cubic Portland Cement Concrete.
SIGNIFICANT OF TEST
To control the quality of the concrete and to ensure specification compliance
APPARATUS USED;
 150mm x 150mm x 150mm concrete mould
 Standard size of a Tamping rod
 Hand trowel
 Oil/Grease and brush
 Wheel barrow
 Curing tank
 Automatic Compressive test Machine
 Digital Balance
 Spanner and nail
 a b c
Fig. 2.2 (a) Concrete cube being weighed on an electronic digital Scale (b) Compressive
machine after crushing, (c) sample of Concrete cubes

Method/ Procedure
i. The sample of the fresh concrete was obtained from the batching plant, with the aid of
a wheelbarrow.
ii. The concrete mold was set on a relatively flat surface, and the petroleum jelly was used
to rub inside the mould to keep the concrete from bonding to it, and to reduce
corrosion of the metal
iii. The sample of the fresh concrete was casted into three different layers, each layer was
stroked 35 times with the aid of the tamping rod (steel bar 16mm diameter, long bullet
pointed at lower end)
iv. The hand trowel was used to smoothen and level the surface of the concrete.
 v. The concrete casted in the mould was labeled, after initial setting time (15-30min) and
are kept in the mould for the first 24± 8hours
vi. The specimens was then removed from the mould with the aid of a spanner, and placed
inside clean water for curing for a period of seven and twenty- eight days.
vii. The specimens was obtained, from the curing tank after the period of curing elapsed,
and the weight of the cube was determined with the aid of the digital scale, {as shown
in Fig.2(a)} and the value was recorded to the nearest gram
viii. The compressive machine was set on, and the concrete was placed in the machine in
such a manner that the load will be applied to the opposite side of the cube, the load
was released after crushing, and the value of the loading KN and strength N/mm2 was
obtained.
ix. Step viii was repeated for different specimen to obtain the average strength of the
concrete.
x. The table was computed and tabulated as shown in the chart.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

 The density of the specimen was determined, using the relationship
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑒
Density (kg/m3) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑒

Volume of cube: 150mm x 150mm x 150mm

 The compressive load was obtained from the machine after crushing in kg
 Compressive strength was also obtained automatically from the machine, value can be
verified using the relationship
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
Compressive Strength: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑒

 The average value of the compressive strength of the cubes was obtained and the value
was recorded in N/m2.

DISCUSSION OF RESULT.
Moisture - Density Relationship Test using Modified Proctor Compaction Test
General Principle:
Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires
mechanical energy. The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit
weight. When water is added to the soil during compaction, it acts as a softening agent on the
soil particles. The soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely packed position.
The dry unit weight after compaction first increases as the moisture content increases at a
moisture content w = 0, the moist unit weight is equal to the dry unit weight, When the
moisture content is gradually increased and the same comp active effort is used for
compaction, the weight of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually increases. Beyond certain
moisture content, any increase in the moisture content tends to reduce the dry unit weight.
This is because the water takes up the spaces that would have been occupied by the solid
particles. The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is attained is generally
referred to as the optimum Moisture content.
For conducting the modified Proctor test, the same mold is used, with a volume of 943.3
cm3, as in the case of the standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by
a hammer that weighs 44.5 N (mass _ 4.536 kg). The drop of the hammer is 457.2 mm. The
number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test.
AIMS
To determine the relationship between water content and dry density and then to determine
the Optimum Moisture Content (O.M.C) and the Maximum Dry Density (M.D.D) of a given soil.
APPARATUS USED
 Proctor Mold
 4.5Kg Rammer
 Scoop
 Hand trowel
 Oil/ grease
 Thermostatically controlled oven
 Weighing balance
  Moisture can
 19mm B.S Sieve
 Graduated measuring Cylinder
 Straight Edge
 Water bottle

Procedure/ Method
i. A sufficient quantity of the air dried soil was obtained in large mixing tray.
ii. 6000gms of the soil sample was obtained after passing through 19mm B.S sieve.
iii. The weight of the mold without collar was obtained and the value was recorded as W 1.
iv. 6000g of the soil sample was also obtained and the value was recorded.
v. The amount of water added initially (4%) was computed as;
Volume of water (ml) = 4% of the total mass of soil (6000g).
vi. The water was measured using the measuring cylinder and was used to mixed the soil
sample thoroughly, until a homogenous mixed is attained.
vii. The compaction mold was assembled to it base and collar; soil was placed into the mold
in five equal layers, each layer was compacted with twenty five (25) blows with the aid
of the rammer: the soil sample should completely fill the cylinder and the last
compacted layer must extend slightly above the collar.
viii. The collar was carefully removed and the compacted soil was trimmed so as to form and
even surface with the top of the mold with the aid of the straight edge.
ix. The weight of the compacted soil with the mold was determined and recorded as W2
x. Sample was obtained and placed into a moisture can, the weight of the moisture can
with the wet soil was determined and was placed inside the oven, after 24hrs the
weight of dry soil and container was obtained.
xi. The compacted soil was extrude from the mold, placed into a large tray and break up
until it appears visually cohesive.
xii. 120ml of water was measured, representing 2% of the total mass of the soil sample.
xiii. Step iv to xii was consecutively repeated, until the mass of compacted soil and mold
decreases.
CALCULATION
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙
i. Bulk Density = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑑

Mass of Compacted Soil = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑) – 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑑

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
ii. Moisture Content= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 100

Mass of Water =
{(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟) − (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟)}𝑔

Mass of Dry Soil =

{(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟) − (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟)}𝑔
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
iii. Dry Density = 100+𝑤

Where “w” is the average moisture content expressed in percentage.

iv. The graph of Dry Density was plotted against Average moisture content as shown below
and the value of the maximum Dry Density and Optimum moisture content was
determined from the point of smooth parabolic curve on the X- axis and Y-axis
respectively.
 CONSISTENCY LIMIT
INTRODUCTION
Consistency test is the physical state of a fine grain soil at particular moisture content. It
is also that property of a given soil which is manifested by it resistance to flow, at such it is a
reflection of the cohesive resistance properties of the finer fraction of the soil rather than of
the inter-granular fraction Hence, consistency limit is the water content at which the soil passes
from one state to another.
The Atterberg limit are a basic measure of the nature of a fine grain soil, depending on
the water content of the soil it may appear in four states:
 Solid
 Semi solid
 Plastic and
 Liquid
In each state, the consistency and behavior of the soil is different and thus so are its
engineering properties. Thus the boundary between each state can be defined based on the
change in the soil behavior. The Atterberg limit can be used to distinguish between silt and clay,
and can distinguish between different types of silt and clays.
Shrinkage limit (SL)
Soil mass shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from the soil. With continuous loss of
moisture, a stage of equilibrium is reached at which point more loss of moisture will result in no
further volume change. The moisture content, in percent, at which the volume change of the
soil mass ceases, is defined as the shrinkage limit.
The shrinkage limit is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any
more volume reduction
Plastic limit (PL)
The plastic limit is the water content expressed in percentage where soil starts to exhibit plastic
behavior. A thread of soil is at it plastic limit when it is rolled to a diameter less than 10mm or
begins to crumble.
Liquid Limit (LL)
The liquid limit is the water content where a soil changes from plastic to liquid behavior. It can
also be defined as the minimum water content at which the soil flows under a specify small
disturbing force.
Plasticity Index (PI)
The plastic index is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit; it is the size of
the range of water where a soil exhibits plastic properties.

STANDARD REFERENCE 4318 – Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and
Plasticity Index of soil
APPARATUS
a) Liquid limit test
i. Weighing balance
ii. B.S sieve
iii. Mortar and pestle
iv. Liquid limit device
v. Grooving tool
vi. Spatula
 vii. Thermostatically controlled oven
viii. Moisture can
ix. Water bottle
x. 400mm x 400mm glass plate.
b) Plastic limit test
i. Weighing balance
ii. Thermostatically controlled oven
iii. Moisture can
iv. Spatula
v. Glass plate
c) Shrinkage limit test
i. Shrinkage mould
ii. Spatula
iii. Thermostatically controlled oven
iv. Divider and measuring rule.
PROCEDURE
a. LIQUID LIMIT
i. A sufficient quantity of the air dried soil was obtained in large mixing tray; the soil
sample was pounded with the aid of mortar and pestle and was passed through No. 36
B.S sieve.
ii. 350g of the soil sample was placed on a glass plate; water was added with a plastic
squeeze bottle and was mixed thoroughly with the aid of a spatula until a homogeneous
mix is attained.
iii. The spatula was used to place the soil sample in the casagrande cup and the surface was
smoothening so that the maximum depth is about 8mm.
iv. A groove was cut at the center line of the soil with the aid of the grooving tool
v. The liquid limit device was cranked at the rate of two revolutions per second until there
is a clear visibility closure in the soil placed in the cup. The number of blows that cause
 the closure was count and recorded. (Make the paste so that N begin with a value
ranging from 10-15).
vi. The soil sample was collected from the closed part using the spatula, placed in the
moisture can and the weight of the sample was determined, the moisture can with the
sample was placed in an oven.
vii. Expose the soil mix to fan or dry it by continuously mixing it with spatula.
viii. Step iii to vii was repeated until the value of N reaches a value higher than 40.
ix. The corresponding moisture content was determined after 24hrs, moisture content in
percent vs. N (%) (Flow curve) was plotted.

b. PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

i. 20grams of a representative, air dried soil sample, passing through No. 40 sieve was
placed on a square glass plate.
ii. Water was added from the plastic squeeze bottle to the soil and was mixed thoroughly
until a homogeneous paste is formed.
iii. From the moist soil, prepared in step ii, several ellipsoidal –shape soil a mass was
formed, without clinging to the hand.
iv. The ellipsoidal shape was rolled on the glass plate with the aid of the palm of the hand
until a trend of 3mm diameter is formed, if the trend shows crack, turn it into an
ellipsoidal shape and rerolled, If the crack do not show on the trend, placed the soil
inside the moisture can and determine the moisture content in percentage
 SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST
i. 100--150grams of a representative, air dried soil sample, passing through No. 40 sieve
was placed on a square glass plate.
ii. Water was added from the plastic squeeze bottle to the soil and was mixed thoroughly
until a homogeneous paste is formed. Note that the moisture content of the paste
should be above the liquid limit of the soil to ensure full saturation.
iii. The shrinkage limit mould was coated slightly with petroleum jelly and the mass of the
mould was determined.
iv. The mould was filled with about one – third full with the soil paste; the mould was
tapped on a firm surface so that the soil flow to the edges of the dish, step iv was
repeated until the mould is filled.
v. The surface of the soil was leveled with steel straight edge, the side and button of the
dish was clean and the mould was placed inside the oven for 24hrs.
vi. After 24hrs of oven dried, steel rule was used to measure the decrease in length of the
soil sample in the mould and the linear shrinkage was computed.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION
 The corresponding number of blow in the liquid limit test at which there is a clear
visibility closure of the soil placed in the cup was recorded.
 The Mass of Wet Sample+ Container, Mass of Dry Sample + container, and Mass of
Container of both the Liquid limit and plastic limit test were recorded to the nearest
0.1g.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 The moisture content expressed as; = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 100

Given That;

Mass of Water =
{(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟) − (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟)}𝑔

Mass of Dry Soil =

{(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟) − (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟)}𝑔
 Flow curve of Moisture content against (Number of Blows “N”) was plotted, the
corresponding moisture content at 25 blows or the average of the moisture content
 defined the liquid limit value expressed in Percentage. Similarly the average value of
the moisture content of the plastic limit test, defined the plastic limit value, expressed
as percentage.
 The plasticity index was also determined as the difference between the liquid limit
value and the plastic limit value.
LINEAR SHRINKAGE

 The value of the linear shrinkage expressed as :

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Linear Shrinkage = × 100
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Change in Length =
{(Length of the wet Soil in the mould )– (𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑 )}
Original Length = or length of the mould= 140mm

Particle-size distribution (grain size analysis)

Introduction
The particle size distribution (grain size analysis) refers to the diameter of the soil particle
contained in a soil mass. It is determined by sieving some quantity of soil through a given set of
standard sieves. Natural soil can never be encountered in which all particle are exactly the
same size and shape, properties and classification of a soil are greatly influenced by the size of
it particle and distribution of grain size throughout the soil mass.
Sieve analysis consist of passing a sample through a set of sieves and weighing the amount
of material retain on each sieves, sieves are constructed of weir screens with square opening of
standard sieves. The table below shows a list of the B.S standard sieves number with their
corresponding size of opening:
B.S sieve Mesh No. B.S sieve Mesh No.
63.5mm 2.5’’ 3.18mm 1/8’’
50mm 2’’ 2.36mm 7
37.5mm 1.5’’ 1.18mm 14
24.5mm 1’’ 600mic 25
 19.1mm ¾’’ 425mic 36
12.7mm ½’’ 300mic 52
9.5mm 3/8’’ 150mic 100
6.4mm ¼’’ 75mic 200
4.8mm 3/16’’ Base

Two methods of sieving are specified, dry sieving and, if the sample contains silt or clay, wet
sieving. The relative proportions of silt and clay can only be determined from sedimentation
testing
Dry sieving: is appropriate only for soils containing insignificant quantities of silt and clay,
i.e. essentially cohesion less soils.
Wet sieving: covers the quantitative determination of the particle-size distribution down to
fine sand size.
The results of a particle-size analysis are presented either (a) as a table which lists the
percentage of the total sample that passes each sieve size or is smaller than a specified particle
diameter and (b) as a plot of the sieve or particle size versus percentage passing each sieve or
smaller than each diameter, with the sieve or particle size on a logarithmic scale.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained in a soil mass using wet method
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D422 – Standard Test Method for Particle Size Analysis of Soils
APPARATUS
 Weighing balance sensitive to 0.1g
 Set of sieves, a button and a cover
 Iron brush
 Mechanical sieve shaker
 Thermostatically controlled oven
 Tray
 B.S sieves
PROCEDURE
i. The initial dry mass of the soil sample was determined, and the value was recorded to
the nearest 1.0grams.
ii. The dry soil was washed through 200mm B.S sieve in order to remove all the fines (silts
and clay particles until the water passing through the sieve is cleaned.,
iii. The soil sample retained on B.S sieve 200mm was oven dried
iv. A stack of dried and clean sieve was assembled, the sieves are usually assembled so that
the opening in any sieve screen is approximately double that of the next-finer (lower)
screen. The top sieve should have openings that are large enough so that all of the soil
particles will fall through the sieve.
v. The dry soil was poured into the top of the stack of sieves, a top lid was installed, and
the sieves are shaken, the stack of sieves can be shaken manually, although it is much
easier to use a mechanical shaker to run for about 10-15mins.
vi. After thoroughly shaking, a balance was used to measure the mass of soil retained on
each sieve and the value was recorded to the nearest 0.1grams.
CALCULATION:
i. Percentage retained (%) on each sieve =
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝑬𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝑺𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆
∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒅
ii. Percentage finer passing through the nth sieve : The percent finer F by dry weight,
also known as the percent passing, is then calculated as follows:
100 – Percentage retained, successively
GRAPH
The grain size distribution obtained from the sieve analysis is plotted in a semi-
logarithmic graph paper with grain size plotted on the log scale (horizontal axis) and percentage
finer plotted on the normal scale (vertical axis).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
From the graph plotted, it can be deduced that the soil particle is well graded i.e. it
contain particles of a wide range of sizes and has a good representation of all sizes and the
percentage finer passing sieve 200 (75um) is less than 23.5%
 Particle size distribution is an important test on a given soil because, the distribution of
different grain size affects soil engineering properties and are used in the selection of suitable
material to be used as a road bases (Sub- Base and Sub Grade), based on Federal Ministry of
Works, Specification for roads and Bridges (1997) Clause recommended that the percent by
weight passing sieve 200 (75um) should not be greater than 35%.
PRECAUTION
CONCLUSION

CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

This test is commonly known as the CBR test and involves the determination of the load-
deformation curve of the soil in the laboratory using the standard CBR testing equipment
shown in Fig.
The test is conducted on samples of soil compacted to required standards and
immersed in water, during which the samples are loaded with a surcharge that simulate the
estimated weight of pavement material the soil will
The principle underlying the test involves determining the relationship between force and
penetration when a cylindrical plunger of a standard cross-sectional area is made to penetrate
a compacted soil sample at a given rate. At certain values of penetration the ratio of the applied
force to a standard force, expressed as a percentage, is defined as the California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) for the soil.
Procedure:
A. Preparation of Specimen
i. Take about 7.5kg of dry soil passing through 19mm B.S. sieve.
ii. The soil sample was thoroughly mixed with water up to the optimum moisture content.
iii. The placer disc was placed over the base plate the soil was compacted in the mould with
collar in five layers giving 55 blows per each layer using a rammer weighing 4.89 kg, falling
from a height of 45 cm.
iv. The collar was removed and excess soil was trimmed off.
v. The mould was turned upside down and the placer disc was removed.
B. Penetration test
i. The mould assembly was placed on the loading machine.
ii. The penetration piston was set at the center of the specimen.
iii. The load and displacement dial gauges was set to zero, The loading machine was set on and
load was applied on the penetration plunger at the rate of 1.25mm/min. the load readings
at penetration of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0… 7.0mm was recorded.
iv. At the end of the penetration test, the mould was detached from the loading machine, the
mould was turn upside down and step Bi to Biii was repeated to obtain the base value of
the penetration.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION.
FIELD DENSITY TEST USING SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD
INTRODUCTION:
This test method covers the measurement of the in-situ dry density of the soil that has
been compacted with the addition of water different methods are used for this test. But
however, in this experiment, sand replacement method is adopted to measure the density of
compacted soil placed during the construction of embankment.
In sand replacement method, a small cylindrical pit is excavated and the weight of the
soil excavated from the pit is measured. Sand whose density is known is filled into the pit using
the cone, by measuring the sand required to filled the pit, the volume of the hole can be easily
determined, knowing the weight of the excavated soil and the volume of the pit, the bulk
density can be calculated. In assessing the quality of the field compaction the relative
compaction (RC) of the soil can be determined using the relation below:
𝛾𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 100

Where
𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the laboratory maximum dry density (pcf or Mg/m3) and
𝛾𝑑 is the field dry density (pcf or Mg/m3).
In California, the typical mass grading specification for structural fill is a minimum relative
compaction of 90 percent using the modified Proctor laboratory compaction test. In some
cases, such as for the compaction of roadway base or for the lower portions of deep fill, a
higher compaction of a minimum relative compaction of 95 percent is often specified.
AIM:
i. To determine the dry density of a sub base soil on a given road
ii. To determine the relative percentage of compaction on a given road layer (Sub-
Base)
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D1556 – Standard Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of soil by the Sand
Replacement Method.
APPARATUS
 Metal tray 300mm square with a 100mm diameter hole in the centre.
 Rubber bucket
 Chisel, hammer and nail
 Speedy moisture tester
 Clean graded natural sand; passing the 600 and retained on 300 um sieves
 Pouring cylinder/replacement cone
 Metal tray
 A readable scale balance and accurate to 1g
 Measuring rule or tape
 Scoop
 PROCEDURE/METHOD:
i. The metal tray was laid on the prepared surface (sub- base) and held firmly with
nails, using the hole as a pattern a round hole up to 150mm depth was excavated
into the soil with the aid of chisel and hammer, the excavated soil was collected
carefully and weighed to the nearest 0.1% of its total mass.
ii. A representative sample of the excavated soil shall be placed in an airtight container
and it moisture content shall be determined.
iii. The tray was removed and the pouring cylinder filled with sand was placed so that
the base of the cylinder covers the hole concentrically. The shutter was the opened
till no further movement of sand take place.
iv. The shutter shall be closed and the cylinder removed, the sand that remains in it
shall be weighed to the nearest 1.0 grams.

DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT, USING SPEEDY MOISTURE TESTER

The speedy moisture meter is supplied completely with vessel with gauge, digital scale,
scoop, cleaning brush, plastic case, steel pulverizing balls which provide a quick, simple
means of determining the moisture content of soil; it is used for moisture determination of
a 20g specimen with 20% maximum moisture content. The test system used the reaction
between water and calcium carbide,
The basic principles behind the test system is that as wet soil are added in the vessel
with a significant quantity of calcium carbide, small steel pulverizing balls are added so as to
break larger particle and the device is thoroughly shake for 15 to 20sec., the amount of
water which is given off when water and calcium carbide react is directly proportional to
the amount of water present in the sample and result in percentage moisture are taken
from the pressure gauge. This was used to obtain it dry density.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:
 The weight of sand before pouring W1 =3000g
 The weight of sand after pouring W2 =1010g
 The weight of sand in the coneW3 = 376g
  The bulk density of the sand was recorded = 1.39g/cm3
 Weight of sand in the hole = (3000 – 1010 – 376)g
= 1614g
 The volume of hole was determined using :
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
= 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑

 Weight of excavated soil = 2570g

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
 Bulk density of the excavated soil=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒

 Speedy moisture tester was used to determine the moisture content of the
excavated soil
 The dry density of the excavated soil sample was obtained using:
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Dry Density = 100+𝑤

Where “W” is the moisture content

 The proctor density is the maximum dry density of the soil obtained in the
laboratory with a given value of 2.080g/cm3.
 The relative percentage of compaction was determined:
𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
= 𝑥 100
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

TRAY TEST
Objectives: To determine the rate of spray of binder (MC1) in (liters/m2)
Apparatus:
 Balance of capacity 5kg and sensitivity of 0.1g
 Tray of size 30cm x 30cm x2.5cm
 Kerosene
 Introduction:
Prime coat is an application of a low viscosity asphalt to a granular base in preparation for
an initial layer (or surface course layer) of asphalt. The purpose of the prime coat is to coat and
bond loose material particle on the surface of the base, it also serve the purpose of blocking
capillary action in crushed aggregate.
To ascertain the correct rate of spray, bitumen tray test are conducted at a certain interval,
the spacing and the number of tray can varied to suit the terrain of a particular location, the
tray test along the interval gives a measure of the variation in rate
Procedure:
i. The mass of the tray was weight to the nearest 0.1g and the value was recorded
ii. The tray was placed on the surface to be poured at some interval between the
path/wheel of the sprayer,
iii. As soon as the sprayer passes over the tray , the tray was removed and the weight
was recorded to the nearest grams,
iv. The net weight of the bitumen and the average rate of spray were determined as
shown in the table.
v. Kerosene was used to wash the bitumen from the tray.
 OBSERVATION/CALCULATION
 Weight of empty tray: = 1703g
 Weight of tray + bitumen = 1813g
 Specific weight of bitumen = 1.02
 Weight of Bitumen = 1813 – 1703 =110g
 Volume of bitumen = weight of Bitumen in Kg/ Specific Gravity of bitumen
0.110/1.02 = 0.108
 Rate of Spray = Volume of Bitumen/ Area of tray.
0.108/0.0853 = 1.27L/m2

ASPHALT EXTRACTION AND GRADING

MARSHAL MIXTURE DESIGN METHOD.

COMPUTER APPLICATION IN SOIL LABORATORY

Microcomputer are rapidly becoming the work horse of engineering world,
BASIC OF EXCEL
The work performed by excel is basically the job of entering data which is then processed to
obtained the desired result. It is in principles as entering data into an electronic calculator,
however the data entered here consist of various types and coupled with existing excel facilities
makes it possible to present the appearance of number, text, associated tables, graphs and a
database. These make excel becomes well integrated to create a reporting text and the
problems analysis as well. Some of the basic formula used are contain in the formula library
which includes: Addition (+), product (*), quotient (/), subtraction (-), MAX, MIN, logical etc.
 The use of microcomputer spreadsheet appears to be amenable to the solution of myriads
of geotechnical problems. Due to the versatility the tools offer and the facts that they furnished
an interactive user friendly environment, the prospect of black box approach may be
eliminated.
In accordance to the foregoing, a series of spreadsheet template are generated to
incorporate the weight volume relationship, Moisture content, California Bearing Ratio (C.B.R)
curves, atterberg Limit, and classification of Soil etc. as shown in the figure below:
MARSHALL STABILITY
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND THEIR USES
BULDOZER
Powerful machine for pushing earth or rocks, used in road construction and wrecking; it
consists of a heavy, broad steel blade or plate mounted on the front of a tractor. Sometimes it
uses a four-wheel-drive tractor, but usually a track or crawler type, mounted on continuous
metal treads, is employed. The blade may be lifted and forced down by hydraulic rams. For
digging, the blade is held below surface level; for transporting, it is held at the surface level and
for spreading, it is held above the surface level, as the tractor moves forward.
FRONTEND LOADER
The front end loader typically are tractor powered and operate on tire, they are typically
articulated and very maneuverable making them ideal for constricted areas, they are used
primarily for materials moving and re-hauling. They are ideal for scooping and hauling materials
in storage pill where they are to be permanently placed or loading it into dump truck. They are
also ideal for dumping soil back into the hole after the necessary below grade work is done.
Every concrete and asphalt has a tire equipped front end loaders to stock the feed to
the batch hopper with aggregate and sand. The operating cycle production of the loader are;
raise, dump and lowered the bucked.
EXCAVATOR
Excavators are heavy equipment consisting of a boom, bucket and cab on a rotating
platform (known as the "house"). The house sits atop an under carriage with tracks or wheels.
All movement and functions of the excavator are accomplished through the use of hydraulic
fluid, be it with rams or motors
Excavators are used in many ways:
• Digging of trenches, holes and foundations
• Material handling
• Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments
• Demolition • General grading/landscaping
• Heavy lift, e.g. lifting and placing of pipes e.t.c
BACKHOE LOADER
Backhoe loader, also called a loader backhoe and commonly shortened to backhoe, is a
heavy equipment vehicle that consists of a tractor fitted with a shovel/bucket on the front and
a small backhoe on the back. Due to its (relatively) small size and versatility, backhoe loaders
are very common in urban engineering and small construction projects (such as building a small
house, fixing urban roads, etc) Backhoe loaders deliver versatility and power in a cost-efficient
package, whether placing pipe, busting up blacktop or digging deep. Each model features
excavator-style boom, bucket and hydraulics. Crowd power, swing torque and boom and dipper
stick lift are impressive and high-pressure hydraulics are powerful and quick. Easy-to-operate
controls smoothly blend functions.
GRADER
Grader, also known as a road grader, blade, maintainer or a motor grader. This is a
construction machine with a long blade used to create a flat surface. Graders can produce
inclined surfaces, to give cant (camber) to roads. In some countries they are used to produce
drainage ditches with shallow V-shaped cross-sections on either side of highway
Graders are commonly used in the construction and maintenance of dirt roads and
gravel roads. In the construction of paved roads they are used to prepare the base course to
create a wide flat surface for the asphalt to be placed on. Similarly, graders are used for leveling
the surface during earthwork is embankments and providing blanket surface before spreading
ballast and laying track. Graders are also used to set native soil foundation pads to finish grade
prior to construction. Application of motor grader includes finishing, shaping, spreading,
leveling and crowning etc.

CRANE:-
A crane is a lifting machine, generally equipped with a winder (also called a wire rope
drum), wire ropes or chains and sheaves that can be used both to lift and lower materials and
to move them horizontally. It uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical
advantage and thus move loads beyond the normal capability of a human. Cranes are
commonly employed in the construction industry, lifting of heavy material, girders etc .
CONCRETE MIXER
A concrete mixer (also commonly called a cement mixer) is a device that
homogeneously mixes cement, aggregate such as sand & gravel and water to form concrete. A
typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller volume works
portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the construction
site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens
CONCRETE MIXER TRUCK
The hydrostatic truck mixer transports concrete /mortar directly from plant to the place
where it is to be poured. Concrete mixer with various capacities like 3, 4 and 6 cum is mounted
on truck. It has a wide range of applications specially for mass concreting works like Multi-
stored buildings, Bridge works and drainages etc. The basic function of transit mixer is to
maintain the concrete's liquid state, through the turning of the drum till the point of delivering
at construction site. The transits mixer is also equipped with a water tank for supply of flush
water to the mixer drum.
TIPPER (DUMPER TRUCK)
A tipper or dump truck (dumper truck) is a truck used for transporting loose material (such as
sand, gravel or dirt) for construction. A typical dump truck is equipped with a hydraulically
operated open-box bed hinged at the rear, the front of which can be lifted up to allow the
contents to be deposited on the ground behind the truck at the site of delivery.

NEEDLE/ INTERNAL/ IMMERSION VIBRATOR:

Internal concrete vibrators are used to consolidate the concrete surface so that it
becomes sturdier and gets free of any risk of voids. Based on operation this is either electrically
operated or diesel operated. Needle vibrator is mounted on a round plate which dampens the
vibrations generated in the engine/motor. The vibrators' needles work on the pendulum
principle showing both high frequency and amplitude, distributing vibration equally over the
whole needle
ROTARY BROOM
Cleaning machine is used to sweep roads quickly. This machine cleans the road
completely and removes the dirt and dust from it in order to assist in road construction. This
machine is provided with a rotary brush which mechanically operates and cleans the dust
particles settled on the road This machines is extensively used to clean the sand of the road
with a powerful high pressure air blower within a short time there by it saves labour and time.
BITUMEN SPRAYER
Bitumen pressure distributor is developed for tack coat and between spraying
application. This equipment is capable of applying a uniform coating of hot & emulsion bitumen
on specified surface in prescribed quality. Its capacity is up to 3000 liters. . PRIMAX Hot Bitumen
Pressure distributor consisting of insulated Bitumen tank of 1200 Ltr. capacity with heating
arrangement and other standard accessories such as Spray Bar, Gear Pump. It is mounted on
fabricated chassis with four pneumatic tires wheels and air Cooled Diesel Engine
ROLLERS
A roller is a compactor used to compact embankment, sub grade, granular sub base dry
lean concrete or bituminous mix, selection of the roller depends on the type of application,
thickness of the layer and the properties of the materials to be compacted.
Rollers are broadly classified into the following type depending on their utility in
different situation: Static roller, vibratory pneumatic, sheep foot and tamping foot.
 TYPES OF COMPACTION MECHANISM
TYPE OF ROLLER
IMPACT PRESSURE VIBRATION KNEEDING
Static  
Vibratory   
Sheep foot    
Pneumatic  

PAVER FINISHER
A paver finisher is used in bituminous road construction for laying non-bituminous as well as
bituminous mix. Following are the main function of a paver finisher:
i. To lay and spread the mix to attained specified surface.
ii. To achieves specified camber and super elevation
iii. To achieve required thickness, uniform degree of compaction, homogeneous quality
of mix during laying and uniform bearing capacity over the entire surface.
The paver finisher consist of two units- the tractor unit and the screed unit. The tractor unit is in
the front part of the paver and houses the prime mover, pushing roller receiving hopper,
feeding conveyor, spreading augers and driving system, the primary function of the tractor is to
propel the tipper truck, to convey and distribute the paving materials through the augers and
tow the screed. The screed unit is the rear part of the paver and consists of leveling screed, tow
arm and mat thickness adjustment mechanism, the compaction effect is determined effect of
the screed is determined by the weight, contact area, paving speed and screed plate.
CONCRETE PRODUCTION
The proper batching, mixing, and handling of fresh concrete are important prerequisites
for strong and durable concrete structures. There are several steps and precautions that must
be followed in mixing and handling fresh concrete in order to ensure a quality material with the
desired characteristics. Concrete should be mixed thoroughly, either in a mixer or by hand, until
it becomes uniform in appearance. Hand mixing is usually limited to small jobs or situations in
which mechanical mixers are not available. Mechanical mixers include on-site mixers and
central mixers in ready-mix plants.
ASPHALT PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
The construction of asphalt highway can be describes as a three steps process: Production of
raw material, preparation of the asphalt mixture and Field operation
i. Production of raw material: asphalt cement is produced at petroleum refineries and
transported to the asphalt plant and placed in tanks. To maintain flow ability, the asphalt is
kept hot approximately 1500C, while being transported to the asphalt plant and while in the
tank at the asphalt plant.
Aggregate are acquired from the quarries and stockpile at the asphalt plant in the sizes
needed for the asphalt mixes. Good control of stockpiles is essential to limit segregation of the
aggregates
ii. Manufacturing asphalt concrete: The manufacturing of an asphalt mixture involves
mixing the aggregate and asphalt binder together according to the design or “recipe.” The
production of HMA requires that the aggregate be dry and hot. The asphalt binder also requires
heat so that it will flow enough to give a uniform coating on the aggregate. Hot mixed asphalt is
prepared through the use of a mixing plant.
The basic operations of a mixing plant are:
 Proper storage and handling of the aggregate and asphalt binder at the mixing facility.
 Accurate proportioning and feeding of the cold aggregate to the dryer.
  Effective drying and heating of the aggregate to the proper temperature.
 Efficient control and collection of the aggregate dust from the dryer.
 Proper proportioning, feeding, and mixing of the asphalt binder with the heated
aggregate.
 Proper storage, dispensing, or discharging, weighing and handling of the finished hot
mixed asphalt
BATCH MIXING PLANT OPERATION
The major components of a batch mixing plant are the cold aggregate feed system, an
asphalt binder supply system, the aggregate dryer, the batch tower, and a dust collection or
control system. The vertical batch tower consists of a hot aggregate conveyor or elevator, a
screen deck, the hot bins, a weigh hopper, an asphalt binder weigh bucket, and the mixing
chamber or pug mill. The operation of the batch mixing plant consists of the following:
i. Aggregate required for the mixture is stockpiled at the mixing plant and charged into
the individual cold feed bin.
ii. The aggregates are proportioned out of each cold feed bin onto a feeder belt according
to the percentages given by the mixture design. These percentages must be based on a
total percent by aggregate basis, instead of a weight by total mixture
iii. The aggregate is charged into the dryer: This is a large rotating cylinder with flights
which promote tumbling of the aggregates through heated air. As the aggregates are
dried dust is released into the air-flow stream of the dryer drum. This air is filtered to
minimize particulate pollution of the surrounding land. The most common type filter
uses a series of bags to collect the dust.
iv. The hot and dry aggregates tumble from the dryer drum to the hot elevator which lifts
the aggregates to the hot sieves. The hot sieves separate the aggregates and charge the
hot bins. Up until this, point the operation of the batch mixing plant has been
continuous; Aggregate is continually being heated, dried, and fed into the hot sieves and
hot bins. The heated and resized aggregate is stored in the hot bins until being
discharged from a gate at the bottom of each hot bin into a weigh hopper that is
 immediately below the hot bins. The correct proportion of each aggregate from each
bin for the batch is determined by weight.
v. While the aggregate is being weighed, the required amount of asphalt binder for each
batch is being weighed separately in a heated “weigh bucket” located just above the
pug mill. The asphalt binder is held in the weigh bucket prior to being discharged into
the pug mill.
vi. The aggregate in the weigh hopper is emptied into the pug mill mixer and is dry mixed
for up to five seconds. After the “dry mix” time, the asphalt binder in the weigh bucket
is discharged into the pug mill. The mixture is then “wet mixed” for 20–35 s and then
discharged into a waiting truck. The entire mixing process takes few minute. The
capacity of the plant is controlled by the size of the pug mill
BATCH PLANT OPERATION CONSIDERATIONS
Some aspects of the plant operations can have an impact on the quality of the mixture being
produced such as:
 Aggregate stockpiles should be prepared and handled in a manner that reduces the
occurrence of segregation.
 The cold feed bins should have dividers to reduce the occurrence of contamination
between the different bins.
 The moisture content of the aggregate when discharged from the drier should be less
than 0.5 percent. Too much moisture in the aggregate can reduce the bonding of the
asphalt binder to the aggregate, which will lead to durability problems.
 The hot sieves should be checked for holes and tears.
 The pug mill should be operated at nominal capacity. Both overloading and under
loading of the pug mill will decrease its mixing efficiency and coating ability. Batch size
should be consistent from batch to batch. The paddle tips and the pug mill should be
checked periodically for damage and wear.
MIXING TEMPERATURE OF HOT MIXED ASPHALT
The mixing temperature of the HMA is dictated by the mixing temperature properties of the
asphalt binder. The mixing temperature is the temperature of the asphalt binder that provides
a kinematic viscosity of 170±20 centistokes. The actual mixture’s discharge temperature is a
variable of the asphalt binder temperature, the moisture in the aggregate and the plant
production rate
The desired mixture discharge temperature will be dependent on the distance to the paving
site from the plant and how difficult the mixture is to compact. Mixing plant mixture
temperatures are generally in the range of 150 0C. Excessive mixture temperatures will cause
the asphalt binder to smoke and oxidize, leading to premature pavement cracking. Generally
the temperature of a typical asphalt mixture should not exceed 190 0C.
TRANSPORTING THE ASPHALT MIXTURE
The asphalt mixture is firstly loaded in the truck into two or more separate batches to avoid
segregation, hauled to the paving project site in dump trucks. The size of the paving project, the
distance to the paving project from the mixing plant and the production capacity will determine
the size of the truck and how many are used. The most common type of truck used in hauling
asphalt mixtures is a non-articulated end dump truck. These trucks are used on both small
paving projects such as parking lots and on large scale highway projects. Typically end dump
trucks, discharge the asphalt mixture directly into the paver or spreader.
Trucks hauling Hot Mixed Asphalt should be equipped with tarps that will cover the load.
The tarps provide two functions:
i. Protect the mixture from inclement weather, large amounts of water striking a hot
asphalt mixture may lead to premature stripping and will also significantly decrease the
temperature of the mixture.
ii. Retains heat on the asphalt mixture and slows down the cooling effects of the wind.
FIELD OPERATION:
The Hot Mixed Asphalt is transported from the plant to the paving location via truck where it is
placed using an asphalt paver the field operations normally involved in asphalt construction are:
 Preparing the paving surface: the paving surface is thorough sweep and cleans with the
aid of power brush so as to remove loose dirt and other foreign materials, a prime coat
(typically, a cutback bitumen) is normally applied prior to placing the new mixture.
Placement of a bituminous mixture is permitted only when the underlying layer is dry and
weather conditions are favorable. The placement of hot-mix materials is usually suspended
when the ambient air temperature is less than 4°C.
 Placing of Asphalt: In the majority of cases, hot mixed asphalt are placed by an ‘asphalt
paver’ that spreads the mixture in a uniform layer of the desired thickness and shapes or
‘finishes’ it to the desired elevation and cross-section, ready for compaction. Pavers are
widely used with hot mixes, which must be placed and finished rapidly so that they can be
compacted while hot. The wheelbases of these machines are sufficiently long to eliminate
the need for forms, and to minimize the occurrence of irregularities in the underlying layer.
The machines can process thicknesses up to 250mm over a width of up to 4.3 m; working
speeds generally range from 3 to 21 miles/min.
As indicated in Fig., the mixture that is to be placed by the paver is tipped into a receiving
hopper from a transport unit. It is then fed from the hopper towards the finishing section of
the machine, and spread and agitated by screws that ensure the uniformity of the spread
material over the full processing width. The loose ‘fluffed-up’ material is then struck off at
the desired elevation and cross- section by one or more oscillating or vibratory screeds that
employ a tamping mechanism to strike off and initially compact the material. The screeds
are usually provided with heating units to prevent the material from being picked up during
the spreading and finishing operations. These pavers are fully adjustable to ensure a
uniform flow of material through the machine and to produce a smooth, even layer of the
desired thickness and cross-section. The laying thickness and temperature of the underlying
asphalt is 55mm and the laying temperature ranges from 1300C to 1450C
 Compaction of Asphalt: When the spreading and finishing operations have been
completed, and while the mixture is still hot, rolling is begun. Rolling may be carried out by
steel wheel or pneumatic tyred rollers or by a combination of the two. The steel roller set
the material; most of the density is achieved during the breakdown rolling, if further rolling
is needed to achieve the desired density, further roller passes are made in the intermediate
stage. Pneumatic-tired rollers provide a closely knit surface by kneading aggregate particles
together.
The bulk of the rolling is done in a longitudinal direction, beginning at the edges and
gradually progressing toward the centre – except on super elevated curves where rolling
begins on the low side and progresses toward the high side. Rolling procedures vary with
the properties of the mixture, thickness of layer, and other factors. In modern practice,
rolling is divided into three phases, which follow Design and construction of hot-mix
bituminous surfacing and road bases closely behind one another, namely initial or ‘break-
down’ rolling, intermediate rolling, and finish rolling. The breakdown and intermediate
phases primarily provide the compacted density, and the final rolling gives the final
smoothness.
Field Operation of Hot Mixed Asphalt: (a) Placing of Asphalt into Paver, (b) Measuring of
Asphalt Temperature with Thermometer, (c) initial rolling of Asphalt with Steel wheel roller
(d) Final Rolling of Asphalt with Smooth Wheel Roller.
DETERMINATION OF TRUCKLOAD YIELD OF ASPHALT
The yield method involves determining how many linear meters a truckload of material
should be capable of paving and then adjusting the thickness control cranks to obtain that yield.
A truckload yield is determined by the following method:
i. Determine the compacted density of the material being placed (kg/m3).
ii. Obtain the desired depth or thickness in mm and convert to meters.
iii. Obtain the desired mat width in meters that will be placed by the screed.
iv. Multiply the compacted density by the desired depth and desired mat width. This will
give a result in kg per linear meter of travel.
v. Obtain the amount of material to be loaded in an average truck.
vi. Divide the truckload by the kg per linear meter of travel result, to give a result in linear
meters paved per truck.
Worked Example:
A dumped truck with a tipping No. of TT-99 was loaded with 42.5tons of Hot mixed asphalt
from the Batching plant in Mayo-Belwa, L.G.A of Adamawa state, determine the truckload
yield, provided that:
The width of the pavement is 3.6m
The paving depth is 0.055m
Compacted density of asphalt= 2.30tons/m3
Solution
Total weight of Asphalt = 42.5tons

Density = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠⁄𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Volume of Asphalt = 42.5/2.3 = 18.5m3

Note: volume = length x Width x thickness
: Length = Total volume/ width x thickness
= 18.5/ 3.6 x 0.055
 =93.32m

CONSTRUCTION OF DRAINAGE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION
REFERENCE
 Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, General Specification, (Roads and
Bridges) Volume II Revised 1999.
 Asphalt pavement, A practical guide to design, production, and maintenance for
Engineers and Architects, Patrick G. Lavin First published Spon Press London 2003
 Das B. Soil Mechanics Laboratory Manual, 9Tth edition, Oxford University Press 2015
 Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), Procedure Guide for the Determination of
the Quantity and Quality of Petroleum and Petroleum Product at Custody Transfer
Point, Part I, Section 3.1, Pg. 28, 2019.
 Derucher K.N and Korflatis G.P, Materials for Civil and Highway ,Engineers
 Pocket book for road construction equipment, Published by Indian Roads Congress,
2018.