Topic 6.

Energy Flow

Introduction
The energy on our planet comes from the sun, thanks to the xation of this
energy by plants, life one Earth exists since it is the basis for the food chain
and the ow of energy through the ecosystems.
Energy ow in an ecosystem is easy to explain. Energy like matter
transforms and it is transferred. This phenomenon occurs in the
ecosystems by means of simple transformation processes being the food
chain the most important.
In general the energy ow starts with sunlight, which is absorbed by the
plants, which transform the energy when mixing the light with the earth
minerals. When plants are eaten by herbivorous like cows, these transform
the bonds with some other chain food links.
Then, in nature, when predators and carnivorous die, they are eaten by
bacteria and the energy cycle starts again
Nowadays, increasing worries about the possibility of a global weather
change are triggering the development of biodiesel as an alternative to the
use of oil diesel. Biodiesel is an ester that can be produced from several
types of vegetal oils, like soybean, colza, sun ower and from animal fats.
Large extensions of land have been allocated to growing corn for biofuels:
ethanol on the other hand has been used in an effort to nd more
ecological fuels, and many projects in genetic engineering are done in an
attempt to modify plant DNA to promote growth or to produce pigments.
Biotechnology and Biofuels
If we consider the classic mean of “biotechnology”, obtaining fuels from
organisms or from their derivatives, they made biofuels into a
biotechnological product. Also, modern biotechnology uses genetic
engineering techniques to improve crops and to contribute in a signi cant
way the development of biofuels by reducing the farming costs and by
increasing the production yield in a signi cant way. This would help to
improve the competitiveness of energetic crops compared with fossil fuels.
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Explanation
6.1 ATP and cellular metabolism
We will start by de ning energy as the capacity to do work, and work is the
force that acts on a body and makes it move.

Fig. 1 Human Metabolism and Energy

Cells carry out many chemical reactions that can liberate energy, and are
called exergonic, and other reactions that consume energy and are called
endergonic. The energy that is used by the cell is stored in the chemical
bonds of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), for which it is commonly called
the energy currency of the cells. The energy in this molecule is found in
the ester bonds that join the atoms of the phosphate groups.
When the ATP molecule is hydrolyzed (i.e. separated), it releases energy
and becoming adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and phosphoric acid (Pi).
The energy liberated in exergonic reactions is used to carry out endergonic
reactions or those that require energy; these reactions happen with the
participation of enzymes that are protein catalyst, i.e. they have the ability
to speed up chemical reactions (Audesirk, Audesirk and Byers, 2008).
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Click in the following video to see a brief explanation about energy in cells
and the ATP production.

Click in the following video to see a brief explanation about energy in

cells and the ATP production.

Cellular Respiration - Energy in a Cell [Video le].

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qviLDKDJNKM

All of the chemical reactions that take place in the cells is called
metabolism, and it can be classi ed into two types:

Anabolism
Also called the construction of molecules, allows the synthesis of complex
organic molecules from simple molecules, using energy provided by ATP;
an example of anabolism is photosynthesis, since plant cells (thanks to the
chloroplasts) are able to transform inorganic molecules into organic
molecules with the help of energy from the sun (Molina-Cerón and Pérez-
Granados, 2007).
Catabolism
Also called metabolic degradation of molecules. The cells transform
complex substances into simpler ones, releasing the stored energy in the
bonds of ATP; an example of catabolism is cellular respiration, the cells in
this process —with the help of the mitochondria— breakdown the glucose
molecules, releasing energy.
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 Taken from http://kids.britannica.com/...
For education purposes only.

6.2 The ow of energy in autotrophs and heterotrophs

Photosynthetic bacteria, algae and plants obtain energy by transforming
inorganic compounds into organic ones, in a process called
photosynthesis, and are known as autotrophs; on the other hand,
heterotrophs —like fungi, animals and some bacteria— obtain their
energy to live by feeding off other living things, converting the food
molecules that they eat into more complex molecules (biosynthesis) (Evers,
Starr, Evers, Starr, Starr and Taggart, 2009).

Click here to see the following video to see in an illustrative way the
ow of energy on earth
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 knowwhatuknow41. (2012, november 15). ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS. [Video File]
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdfoZhpOVf4

Living things depend on each other and obtain their energy thanks to the
food chain, all the food chains begin with a primary producer able to
produce its own food, like algae, plants or photosynthetic bacteria. It
should be noted that primary producers are eaten by primary consumers,
also called herbivores, such as rabbits, some insects, elephants, deer,
horses, pandas or koalas.
In turn, consumers are the primary food source for secondary consumers
or carnivores, like lions, crocodiles, tigers and cheetahs, to name a few.
There are also tertiary consumers, which are carnivores that eat other
carnivores, such as hyenas, vultures and eagles.
Decomposers —like fungi and bacteria— are responsible for degrading
organic matter to its simplest components and returning them to the
ecosystem to continue their cycle.
All food chains intertwine forming food webs, larger food webs tend to be
more sensitive to change, so if an organism in the web disappears, then
the entire food web is affected (De Erice and González, 2012).
One point…

Learn more about our secret universe: See this BBC article “The
hidden life of the cell”:
 BBC. (2012, October 22). The Cell Secret Immune System - Secret Universe: The Hidden Life
Of The Cell - BBC Two [Video File] Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=v1MnNO4I9aU

Be curious, see all the videos on this series, they're awesome!

One way to represent how energy ows through an ecosystem is by a food

pyramid, it can be observed that the higher the trophic level at which an
organism belongs, the less energy you have available (De Erice and
González, 2012).

To learn more about Food pyramid, we recommend you watch the

following video:

Kids Educational Games. (2014, August 22). Food Pyramid, The 5 Different Food Groups, Learn
the Healthy & Unhealthy Foods, Video for Kids. [Video le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hS8pb8lRBc4

Conclusion
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How do plants defend themselves so that they are not eaten by herbivore?
Plants not only exchange oxygen and CO2 with the atmosphere, but they
also emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that serve as communication
between plants and between plants and animals. When a plant is attacked
by a microorganism or by a herbivore that tries to eat it, the plant releases
these compounds that serve to warn other plants to prepare, and they
respond by emitting repellents against the herbivores (Filella, Llusia,
Peñuelas and Seco, 2011).
Thus, as you can see, the relationship between the species and the
balance in ecosystems is due to responses that are both visible and
invisible to us, but that normally help maintain a ne balance between
producers and consumers.

Topic 7. Photosynthesis

Introduction

Thanks to photosynthesis, the swamps, that existed 300 million years ago,
underwent exceptional growth, followed by decomposition and compacting,
becoming the fossil fuels that we extract today from the Earth to satisfy our
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energy needs; currently, photosynthesis provides us with food and oxygen
(De Erice and González, 2012).

Explanation
7.1 What is photosynthesis?
As you know, life on Earth depends on energy from the sun, as
autotrophic organisms are able to use it to convert inorganic molecules
into organic molecules, ie they use the water molecule H2O and CO2
molecule to create their own food: glucose (C6H12O6).

Equation that summarizes the process of photosynthesis

Source: Starr, C. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad de la vida(12nd ed.). Mexico:
Cengage Learning.

Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast in two phases, the rst phase
is light-dependent and is known as the light phase or light dependent
reactions, occurring in the thylakoid of the chloroplast; and the other
phase is independent of light, the so-called dark phase or Calvin cycle,
which occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.

The following video contains an explanation of the photosynthesis

steps and the places where it takes place.
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 Cellular Respiration - Energy in a Cell [Video le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qviLDKDJNKM

To successfully carry out this process, plants have photosynthetic pigments

that selectively absorb speci c wavelengths of light; those wavelengths not
absorbed are re ected, giving to each pigment its characteristic color. For
example, the pigment that absorbs purple, blue and green light will re ect
the remaining spectrum of light i.e. yellow, orange, and red, so that what
we'll see with the naked eye is orange (Evers, Starr, Evers, Starr, Starr and
Taggart, 2009).

Occurrence in Photosynthetic
Organisms
Pigment Color Plants Protists Bacteria Archaea
Chlorophyll a Green X X X
Otherchlorophylls X X X
Phycobilins
Phycocyanin Blue X X
Phycoerythrobilin Red X X
Phycoviolobilin Purple X X
Phycoeurobilin Orange X X
Carotenoids
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 Carotene
-carotene Orange X X X
-carotene Orange X X X
Lycopene Red X X
Xanthophylls
Lutein Yellow X X X
Zeaxanthin Yellow X X X
Fucoxanthin Orange X X
Anthocyanins Purple X X X
Retinal Purple X

Some pigments of photosynthesis

Source: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12° ed.). México: Cengage Learning.

The most common pigment found in plants is chlorophyll a; this pigment

absorbs red and violet light so that it re ects the color green. As you can
see in the table of pigments, there are many pigments in plants that re ect
different colors, however, in the leaves of most plants the large amount of
chlorophyll masks the colors that re ect the other pigments.
Have you noticed that the leaves of some plants change color in autumn?
For during this season the speed at which the chlorophyll is replaced slows
down, so that it breaks down faster than it is replaced. Because other
pigments are more stable than chlorophyll, the leaves of these plants turn
reddish, yellow or orange, and so —as the chlorophyll content decreases—
we can see the colors of the other plant pigments (Evers, Starr, Starr and
Taggart, 2009).
Chlorophyll is housed in the chloroplast, which has within it a set of
thylakoids called grana, surrounded by a substance called stroma.
7.2 Light dependent reactions
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 The visible light that is useful for photosynthesis is between 380 and 750
nanometers, with this energy the water molecules are broken (photolysis),
so that two electrons, two protons of hydrogen and one oxygen atom are
obtained. This process occurs in the thylakoid membranes where
chlorophyll is located, with millions of photosystems I and II, each having
a light collection system and a series of electron carrier molecules. The
hydrogen that is released as a result of the photolysis of water is used to
generate ATPand NADPH, and oxygen is released in gaseous state (De
Erice and González, 2012).

To learn more about Light reactions, we recommend you watch the

following video:

sadhela (2009, October 24). Light Dependant Reactions of Photosynthesis Animation [Video
le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BK_cjd6Evcw

Most photosynthetic organisms have thylakoids with pairs of

photosystems I and II that work at the same time to produce energy that
is then used in the stroma to produce sugars. Thylakoid photosystems
consist of a network of molecules of accessory pigments and chlorophyll,
where light energy excites electrons to a higher energy level. Photosystems
channel energy to a reaction center formed by chlorophyll alpha bound to
proteins, which then transfers electrons to the proteins associated with the
thylakoid membrane. Let us see step by step how it happens:
Photosystem II: the photons in the photosystem II energize the electrons
that are then passed to the electron transport chain, these stray electrons
are replaced by the oxidation of one molecule of water (photolysis), which
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produces free electrons and oxygen gas. As electrons pass through the
electron transport chain, its energy is used to pump hydrogen ions from the
stroma to the thylakoid, creating a concentration gradient, which provides
the energy needed for the enzyme ATP synthase to phosphorylate the ADP
to form ATP. The low-energy electrons leaving photosystem II pass to
photosystem I.
Photosystem I: the electrons are reenergized and passed to an electron
transport chain where they are used to convert NADP to NADPH. The
molecules of ATP and NADPH that are formed in the light-dependent
reactions are readily used in the stroma of the chloroplast to carry out the
light-independent reactions, or Calvin cycle (Molina-Cerón and Pérez-
Granados, 2007).
7.3 Light independent reactions
These reactions are called light independent reactions, since no light is
required for them to occur, but this does not mean that this phase occurs at
night. They take place in the stroma of the chloroplast, and in this stage
the CO2 and water combine to form glucose (C6H12O6). It is at this point
where the energy of ATP and NADPH formed in the light phase was used.
One point…

Learn more about photosynthesis on this BBC article:

Photosynthesis [Video le].

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qwp6hRosDbM
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 We may study the dark phase in three stages, the rst phase is carbon
xation, thanks to the six molecules of ribulose diphosphate that combine
with the CO2 present in the air, and by reacting with the water molecule
forms phosphoglyceric acid.
In the second stage, the ATP and NADPH formed in the light phase are
used to convert thephosphoglyceric acid in glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate. In the last stage, the remaining energy of ATP is used in the
formation of new ribulose diphosphate, glucose, cellulose, starch or
other complex molecules, and the cycle begins again (De Erice, y
González, 2012).

Conclusion
Using the sun's energy, in addition to water and carbon dioxide,
photosynthetic organisms act as glucose factories, plus get oxygen as a
byproduct, in this way, they form the basis for living things that are part of
the food chain, both terrestrial and aquatic.
Photosynthetic organisms are the base of the food chain, since —at the
cellular level they have the organelles necessary for photosynthesis— they
are thus the only factory for glucose, the energy supply necessary for all
living beings. It should be added that, through this process, they release
oxygen, an essential gas for aerobic respiration of living beings that live on
Earth.

Glossary
Decomposition: Chemical reaction in which a compound is transformed
into other simpler molecules.
Compaction: Formation of sediment rocks
Molecule: Group of atoms which constitutes the smallest part of a pure
substance and remains all of its properties.
Phase: State, compared with other state, because of which a thing
changes or develops.
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Pigment: It is a substance that gives color and is found in the cells
Wavelength: The distance in a wave from the beginning to the end.
Water Photolysis: Separation of complex organic molecules by means of
light.
Chemical reaction: Process where one or more substances are
transformed into other substance with different properties.
Fixation: Chemical process used by some living things. Through xation
they get some chemical element such as atmospheric Nitrogen, with the
intention of forming organic compounds.
Byproduct: It is a secondary product which is obtained in a production
process or a chemical reaction.
Aerobic Respiration: Energetic assimilation where living things extract
energy out of organic molecules.

Topic 8. Cellular Respiration

Introduction
Through aerobic respiration, the chemical energy of glucose obtained from
food is transformed into the chemical energy (ATP). In eukaryotes this
process occurs mostly in the mitochondria. With this power supply,
organisms can be kept alive; in the case of plants, the energy is obtained
through photosynthesis, no matter what the source of energy, it must
always be transformed to drive the metabolic reactions that maintain life.

Explanation
8.1 The processes of aerobic and anaerobic respiration
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In most living organisms, the metabolic pathways that break down organic
molecules are eitherthrough aerobic pathways (using oxygen), or
anaerobic pathways (in the absence of oxygen).
The main pathways by which cells derive most of their energy are by
aerobic respiration and anaerobic fermentation. For eukaryotic cells, the
most predominant way is via aerobic respiration. The survival of any
organism depends on a guaranteed source of energy, which can be
obtained using the energy from the sun or indirectly through a food source.
Our digestive system breaks up food into micro molecules: proteins, fats or
carbohydrates, although energy can be obtained from any biomolecule,
carbohydrates contain the most energy.

Carbohydrates are usually made up of long chains of glucose (C6H12O6).

Via cellular respiration, cell enzymes break the chemical bonds between
the glucose molecules and release the stored energy. Each cell contains
multiple mitochondria that provide energy to the cell to carry out its
functions, each mitochondrion consists of two membranes: an inner
membrane and an outer membrane, a mitochondrial matrix and its own
genetic material (Evers, Starr, Starr and Taggart, 2009).
Aerobic respiration is performed in the following steps:
1. Glycolysis
2. Acetyl Co-A formation
3. Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle
4. Electron transport chain
Glycolysis: (from the Greek term gluc, which means sweet, and lysis,
which means loosening) takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell to convert
glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, also known as pyruvic acid,
yielding 2 ATP and 2 NADH. It starts when a glucose molecule enters
through a membrane protein into the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is
broken down into two molecules of pyruvate with three carbons each.
These two molecules are now ready to enter into the reactions of either
aerobic respiration or fermentation (Evers, Starr, Starr and Taggart, 2009).
The second stage of aerobic respiration occurs within the mitochondria,
and includes the formation of acetyl-CoA and the Krebs cycle, wherein
the pyruvate generated by glycolysis is broken down. The pyruvic acid
formed in glycolysis enters into the mitochondrial matrix crossing both
membranes, each pyruvate reacts, breaking down into CO2 and a two-
carbon acetyl group, this two-carbon molecule binds to coenzyme-A (CoA)
forming acetyl-CoA. This process involves a number of enzymes known as
the pyruvate dehydrogenase system. This process forms a NAD + H2 (De
Erice and González, 2012).
The Krebs cycle: the resulting acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle
where pyruvate metabolism derived from glycolysis is completed. Its
starting point is the acetyl-CoA and nally CO2 and reduced electron
carriers are obtained. The energy generated from this stage is two
molecules of ATP (Molina-Cerón and Pérez-Granados, 2007).
Electron transport through the electron transport chain: the transport
of electrons takes place in the inner membrane of mitochondria in
eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, it is carried out in the plasma membrane. We
may study the process in two stages: the transport of electrons through
enzyme complexes which act as transporters and carry electrons from one
complex to another, and the translocation or movement of protons from
the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, with the obtaining of
ATP.
In the electron transport chain much more ATP is produced. It is carried out
in the intermembrane space of the cells through which electrons ow down
a redox gradient, i.e. from NADH and FADH2, until the formation of H2O
(De Erice and González, 2012).

To learn more about Aerobic pathways, we recommend you watch the

following video:
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 gelab (2010, March 29). Aerobic System (Aerobic glycolysis).wmv[Video le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQMsJSme780

In the electron transport chain 32 ATP are generated, if we add the 4 ATP
from the previous stages, the net yield of ATP per glucose is 36 ATP,
although energy yield differs between one cell and another, the cells in the
brain and skeletal muscle yield is 38 ATP, while the cells in the liver, heart
and kidney yield 36 ATP(Evers, Starr, Starr and Taggart, 2009).
There is an important relationship between photosynthesis and cellular
respiration, since in photosynthesis, oxygen is released that is used in the
transport of electrons in cellular respiration, which produces CO2 as a
waste gas that plants exploit to perform photosynthesis.

8.2 The processes of lactate and alcohol fermentation

Fermentation is an anaerobic process that does not involve the respiratory
chain, so that the nal electron acceptor is not oxygen. The nal electron
acceptor is always an organic molecule. Fermentation generates only 2
ATP and is typical of bacteria, fungi and yeasts, even though a type of
fermentation can occur in muscle cells (lactate fermentation), when there is
not enough oxygen and this is the reason that your muscles are sore after
exercise.
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Although there are various types of fermentation, we will study the two
main types:
Alcohol fermentation: is carried out by yeast of the genus
Saccharomyces, who produce ethanol from glucose. Glycolysis occurs rst,
then the pyruvic acid is transformed into ethanol, and CO2 is released. The
most well known yeasts are those used for the production of beer (S.
cerevisiae), wine (S. ellypsoideus) and cider (S. apiculatus) (Molina-Cerón
and Pérez-Granados, 2007).

Lactic fermentation: is the conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid, this

process is carried out by microorganisms that ferment milk, better known in
the Lactobacillus (Molina-Cerón and Pérez-Granados, 2007).

To learn more about Fermentation, we recommend you watch the

following video:

David Herbst (2012, November 18). Fermentation - Lactic Acid and Alcoholic [Video le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Og1n44WOyY0

Conclusion
Living organisms have their own mechanisms by which they are able to
produce the energy that keeps them alive, either by aerobic or anaerobic
cellular respiration. In the case of some bacteria, yeast and fungi the way to
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produce energy by fermentation, an anaerobic process that doesn’t require
oxygen.

Glossary
Eukaryotes: Cells that have its nucleus surrounded by a nuclear
membrane.
Supply: To provide whatever is necessary.
Biomolecule: That which all living things are made of.
Translocation: The shift between two or more things.
Performance: The result of or utility.
Typical: Characteristic representation of a given model.
Yeast: A substance that causes fermentation.

Bibliographic references
• Audesirk, T. y Audesirk, G. (1996). Biología: La Vida en la Tierra (4°
ed.). México: Prentice Hall Hispanoamericana.
• De Erice, E. y González, A. (2012). Biología: la ciencia de la vida (2°
ed.). México: McGraw Hill.
• Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. y Taggart, R. (2009).Biología: La unidad
y la diversidad de la vida. (12° ed.). México: Cengage Learning.
• Molina-Cerón, M. y Pérez-Granados, P. A. (2007). Biología. México:
Santillana.
Topic 9. Patterns of Inheritance

Introduction

To learn more about Genetics, we recommend you watch the

following video:

Genome BC. (2011, August 25). 18 Things You Should Know About Genetics [Video le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bVk0twJYL6Y

Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the study of inheritance
and genetic variation by the laws governing the differences and similarities
between living things. The importance of genetics is that the organisms are
the result of a long evolutionary process in which the hereditary information
that is stored in genes has changed by natural selection. Because of this it
is important to understand the mechanisms that act on genes and the laws
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of inheritance, in order to accelerate these processes, and to improve
organisms and their use in biotechnology.

Explanation
9.1 Mendelian genetics and the Punnett square
Gregor Mendel was a Catholic Augustinian monk and naturalist who
between 1856 and 1863 cultivated and studied pea plants (Pisum sativum),
in which he analyzed in detail seven pairs of traits of the seeds and plants.
His experiments led him to postulate the laws of heredity. He described
two terms that we still use to this day: dominant and recessive.
The plants that Mendel used in his experiments were the progenitor or P
and their descendants that he called the rst lial generation or F1.
When the progenitor plants with smooth seeds were crossed with
progenitor plants with rough seeds, he obtained in the F1 100% of plants
with the phenotype for smooth seeds and no plants with the phenotype for
rough seeds, so he decided to call dominant the trait that appeared in F1
and recessive to those that did not appear.
Mendel proposed that each trait of the plant was controlled by a couple of
factors we now call alleles. Alleles are variants that a gene may have.
Mendel used letters as symbols to represent the alleles, he used and upper
case letter to represent the dominant allele, and a lower case letter to
represent the recessive allele.
The organisms of a pure line are called homozygotes (aa or AA), since
they have a pair of alleles that are the same for a trait and for organisms
with two different alleles are called heterozygotes (Aa), these
combinations of alleles are called the genotype, and there are three
different genotypes: heterozygous (Aa), homozygous dominant (AA),
and homozygous recessive (aa) (De Erice and González, 2012).
1st Law. The law of dominance: also called the law of uniformity of the
hybrids of the rst generation states that when two varieties of individuals
of a pure race are crossed, both of them homozygous for a speci c trait,
all of the hybrids of the rst generation are phenotypically the same.
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2nd Law. The law of segregation: states that the two alleles that control a
trait are separated when the gametes are formed, so that each gamete has
only one allele for the trait.

Cross done by Mendel

In this cross, one parent (P) is homozygous dominant (AA) with yellow seeds that generates
gametes with the dominant trait for yellow color (A) and the other parent (P) is homozygous
recessive (aa) with green seeds that generates gametes with the recessive trait (a) the color
green. When they are crossed, the offspring (F1) will be heterozygous (Aa) and have one
dominant allele (A) and one recessive allele (a), so that their phenotype is yellow.

To demonstrate what Mendel found, you can use a Punnett square, where
you can cross individuals as shown below with an example in which the
female plant is homozygous dominant AA and the male plant is
homozygous recessive aa, and the allele A gives a yellow color and the
allele a gives a Green color, so that the female has yellow seeds and the
male plant has Green seeds. Below we will demonstrate the Punnett
square:
 Punnett square for a cross between individuals of pure race
In this cross, 100% of the descendants or F1 are heterozygotes Aa with the dominant
phenotype that is yellow

In the following example we will cross a female heterozygous plant Aa for

the seed color with another heterozygous plant for the seed color.

Punnett square from a heterozygous cross

In this cross we obtain the following genotypes: 25% of the individuals are homozygous
dominant AA, 50% are heterozygous individuals Aa and 25% are homozygous recessive aa.
Phenotypically we nd that 75% of the descendants will have yellow seeds, ie they have the
dominant allele R and 25% will have green seeds, and they do not have the dominant allele.

3rd law. The law of independent assortment:when considering two

features in a cross, the hereditary factors controlling one of the features are
separated and distributed into gametes independently of genes controlling
another feature.
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 Mendel’s third law
By crossing plants with heterozygous smooth and yellow seeds, you obtained the following
ratio: 9:3:3:1 9 smooth yellow, 3 smooth green, 3 rough yellow, and 1 rough green. Thus
demonstrating that the characters segregate independently.
Image obtained from http://matragut.wordpress.com For educational use only

There are cases in which the features are encoded by different but equally
strong alleles, i.e., the dominant allele does not overpower the recessive
one, when two heterozygous organisms with such features are crossed, the
phenotype of the offspring can be a mixture of the two features, in what is
called incomplete dominance, or the expression of both features is seen
simultaneously and is known as codominance.
An example of incomplete dominance is seen in carnations, the crossing of
a parent with red owers with one with white owers results in a plant with
a new phenotype with pink owers in F1.
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 Model of incomplete dominance
Image obtained from http://elprofedebiolo.blogspot.mx/
For educational use only

An example of codominance is the coat color in Shorthorn cattle in which

there are three kinds of color: red, white and roan, the roan color is
produced by mating a red animal with a white one.

Roan Shorthorn Cattle

Image obtained from http://www.topwebsites24-7.com/cgi-bin/blocks/blocks.cgi?
cmd=show&cmd2=show&id=558&blockid=292&ownerid=30
For educational use only
 To learn more about Mendelian Genetics, we recommend you watch
the following video:

Bozeman Science (2011, July 30). Mendelian Genetics [Video le].

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWqgZUnJdAY

9.2 Genetic abnormalities

Inheriting a disease due to a mutation depends on the type of chromosome
affected (autosomal or sex chromosome), and whether the trait is dominant
or recessive. Mutations that occur in any of the 22 pairs of non-sex
chromosomes are inherited in equal shares to children can be dominant or
recessive.
Autosomal dominant disease
Phenotypically expressed in both homozygous and heterozygous
individuals, if one parent has the abnormal allele of the gene, this
dominates over the normal allele from the other parent. Although these
mutations are inherited, there is the likelihood that a pair of healthy parents
has a child with any of these diseases due to the occurrence of the
mutation in the child. Some of these diseases are: Achondroplasia,
Huntington's disease, neuro bromatosis and Aniridia.
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 Autosomal dominant disease
A parent (P) homozygous recessive aa only produces gametes (g) of type a and a parent
heterozygous Aa, with the disease produce gametes both type A and type gametes A, the
probability of having children (F1) inheriting the mutation is 50%.
 Achondroplasia, characterized by dwar sm
The Jester don Sebastián de Morra, an achondroplastic dwarf painted by Velázquez.
Image obtained from http://www.elcorreo.com For educational use only

Huntington's disease: affects the cells of the basal ganglia, deep brain
structures that have many important functions, including the coordination of
movement and is characterized by a degeneration of neurons, which
causes uncontrolled movements, loss of intellectual faculties and emotional
alterations. This disease inevitably leads to death (Evers, Starr, Starr and
Taggart, 2009).
Neuro bromatosis (NF1): is caused by an uncontrolled growth of nerve
tissue that exerts pressure on the affected nerves, causing pain, severe
nerve damage and loss of function in the area served by the nerve.
Patients may have problems with sensation or movement, depending upon
which types of nerves are affected (AEN, 1993).
Aniridia: various structures of the eye are altered; it is characterized by
complete or partial absence of the iris.
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 Patient with Aniridia
Image obtained from http://www.somospacientes.com
For educational use only

Autosomal recessive disease

In this type of mutation, a single copy of the defective gene does not
produce the disease in the individual who inherits it. To inherit the disease,
the individual must have the defective allele from both the father and
mother, in this case both parents are healthy, but carry the recessive allele,
and therefore are heterozygous Aa:
 Autosomal recessive disease
Parents (P) heterozygous (Aa) are healthy, but carry the recessive allele (a), both generate
gametes of type A and type a, having a 25% chance of having a healthy infant AA, a 25%
chance of having sick children aa, and a 50% chance of having healthy children, but mutation
carriers (who do not express the disease but can inherit the mutation).

Click to view video

Beverly Biology (2014, May 10). Autosomal Dominance Inheritance (updated) [Video le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/...
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 Tay Sachs: characterized by an arrest of all mental processes, muscle
weakness in all muscles, paralysis, blindness and optic atrophy (Jiménez,
Ridaura and Ruiz, 2006).
Galactosemia: inability to convert the galactose from the diet into glucose,
causing developmental delay, lethargy, seizures, and hepatocellular
damage (Agüero, Bindels, Cetraro y Sotil, 2006).
Phenylketonuria: metabolic disorder in which the individual can not
metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine, due to a de ciency of the
enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, leading to the accumulation of
phenylalanine and its metabolites, in untreated cases, this de ciency
causes brain damage and mental retardation.
Cystic brosis: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease that presents
exocrine pancreatic insuf ciency and an abnormally high numbers of
electrolytes in sweat, and complications of respiratory diseases (CME,
2013).
There are other genetic abnormalities that are inherited from the pair of sex
chromosomes, which are called sex-linked inheritance, and may be
present on the X or Y chromosome.

The man has only one X chromosome. All genes located on it will be
manifest, whether they are dominant or recessive. On the other hand, in
women, a recessive gene will not be manifest if the other X chromosome is
a dominant allele. That is why it is said that the woman is a carrier, and the
likelihood of their sons inheriting the mutation is 50%.
Recessive mutations linked to the X chromosome
Daltonism: due to de ciency of the cone pigments, the individual can not
distinguish some colors, the most common forms are dif culty in
distinguishing red from green and blue from yellow.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy: characterized by a degeneration of
muscles, dystrophin is a protein that serves as a structural support to the
cells fused in the muscle bers. When this protein is abnormal or absent,
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the cell cortex weakens and muscle cells die and their wastes remain in the
tissues triggering chronic in ammation.
Hemophilia: is caused by a de ciency in coagulation. People with this
condition tend to have ecchymosis (bruising) with ease, and internal
bleeding, muscle and joint problems.

What it means to have daltonism to the sufferer

A cherry tree, a person without daltonism, can distinguish them in the photo on the left; the
photo on the right represents how a person with daltonism has dif culty distinguishing between
red and green
Source: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12th ed.). Mexico: Cengage Learning.

9.3 Characteristics of chromosomal disorders: Down syndrome,

Klinefelter syndrome and Turner syndrome
When we speak of mutations that affect the number of chromosomes of a
species, these are called genomic mutations. These can be of the
following types:
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Aneuploidy: increase or decrease in the number of chromosomes;
examples: trisomy (three chromosomes of the same type) and
monosomy (a single chromosome of a type).
Polyploidy: is any increase in the diploid number of more than two.
In the case of Down syndrome or trisomy 21, this is an aneuploidy in
which the chromosome 21 is doubled, so that there are three
chromosomes 21 rather than two, the error occurs during meiosis, so that
either the egg or the sperm is left with an extra chromosome 21. Individuals
who inherit this mutation have cognitive impairment, generalized muscle
hypotonia and growth retardation. The chromosome formula for Down
syndrome is 47, XX, +21 if it's a woman and 47, XY, +21 in the case of a
man (Dinulos, 1997).

Karyotype of Down syndrome

 There are 3 chromosomes in pair 21
Image obtained from de http://biomodel.uah.es For educational use only

Boy with Down syndrome

Source: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12th ed.). Mexico: Cengage Learning.

Turner syndrome: aneuploidy that affects the sex chromosomes,

individuals with Turner syndrome do not present the corresponding X or Y
chromosome (X0), in most cases this is due to the lack of segregation of
chromosomes in sperm. These girls grow up with short stature, lack
functional ovaries and, therefore, do not synthesize enough sex hormones
to reach sexual maturity.
Klinefelter syndrome: males have an extra X chromosome (XXY), those
affected are characterized by having excess weight, are tall, and they make
more estrogen than testosterone, producing a feminizing effect, they
develop small testes, sparse facial and body hair, larger breasts and in a
few cases, mental retardation (Evers, Starr, Starr and Taggart, 2009).

To learn more about Characteristics of chromosomes, we recommend

you watch the following video:
 Matthew Mabrey (2014, April 15). Chromosomal Disorders [Video le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GprSBZzyNr4

Conclusion
Did you know that in Mexico, on August 25, 2010, the Health Act
Agreement was enacted that established the prohibition of the sale of
antibiotics without a medical prescription?
This happened because bacterial resistance was detected due to the
irrational use of antibiotics, self-prescription of antibiotics was also a
serious problem that caused the late medical assistance in the rst cases
of in uenza AH1N1. Today we know that the irrational use of antibiotics
increases the mutation rate of bacteria, accelerating genetic variability and
thereby increasing the chances of acquiring resistance.
Mutations are changes in the genetic code that normally the organism is
responsible for its repair; sometimes, these alterations keep producing
abnormalities that decrease the chances of survival of the organisms. In
other cases these mutations may be useful, and the organisms that have
them survive thanks to natural selection, passing these characteristics to
their offspring, and this is how mutations act as a mechanism that drives
the evolution of living beings (S.S.D.F, 2013).

Glossary
Anomaly: Any given change from what is considered normal.
Auto prescription: Selling of medicine without a medical prescription.
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 Bio technology: The use of living things in the production of goods and
services.
Codominance: The sharing of a same domain.
Chronic: In reference to a long illness.
De ciency: Any given element, thing or situation that is not perfect.
De cit: Any given lack of something.
Degeneration: Process in which any given thing loses its original
characteristics.
Dominant: Any given thing that is in control.
Autosomal disease: Any disease that can be transmitted from parents to
offspring.
Phenotype: Physical traits observed in the body.
Filial: The dependence between any given two things.
Gamete: Reproductive cell, either male or female.
Genotype: Group of characteristics shared by any specie.
Hybrid: The product of two different organisms.
Mutation: Any given alteration.
Evolution process: Any given change or transformation.
Progenitor: In reference to the father or mother.
Recessive: Any given situation that is presented over and over.
Syndrome: Group of characteristics that present any given illness.
Disorder: Anything that can alter the natural order of things.
Uniformity: Common characteristics shared between two different things.
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Topic 10. Cellular reproduction

Introduction
One of the characteristics of living things is reproduction, our life
originates from the union of a sperm and an egg to form a cell, the rst cell
gives rise to a complete individual and this is possible thanks to cellular
reproduction.
Throughout our lives many cells die and are replaced by others that are
also generated by division of existing ones. Remember the cell theory? It
postulated that all cells come from preexisting cells and this occurs through
cell division.

Click to view video

BiologyMonk (2013, November 11). An introduction to cell reproduction [Video le].

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pae_Q3H27XQ

Explanation
10.1 Types of cellular division
Click to view video
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 Elliot Burch (2012, December 23). Three Types of Cell Division. [Video le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6lijoPqNgw

In unicellular organisms or with asexual reproduction, cellular division

represents reproduction. In bacteria, amoebae and algae, bipartition or
binary ssion is a form of asexual reproduction in which a cell divides
giving rise to two identical daughter cells. In the case of fungi, lichens,
mosses and ferns, reproduction occurs by sporulation: the nucleus of the
cell is divided into many pieces, and by means of asymmetric cell division,
a part of the cytoplasm surrounds each new nucleus, resulting in spores
(De Erice and González, 2012).
The processes that occur in the life span of a cell to achieve division are
known as the cell cycle. In a cell, two stages of the cell cycle can be
identi ed in the optical microscope with relative ease; a stage called
interphase is longer and in which DNA is duplicated, and it precedes the
stage of cell division or M phase.
Interphase, in turn, is divided into three stages called G1, S and G2.
The G1 phase is characterized by intense biochemical activity, cells are
doing their metabolic tasks in this phase, so it is also known as the stage
of cellulardifferentiation, also messenger RNA synthesis occurs.
Because of proteins, organelles are duplicated and, therefore, the cell
becomes larger. At the end of this phase, there is a checkpoint known as
point R, once past this point; the cell inevitably passes to the S, G2, and M
phases.
The G0 phase: is a state of rest and there is also no cell growth, either
because they are unable to or because they do not need to; cells that delay
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 their passage through the R point enter into this state where they can stay
for days, weeks or even years before returning to divide or they may never
divide again. In mammals, many neurons remain at this stage, that is, they
differentiate but no longer divide, this also occurs with skeletal muscle
bers and erythrocytes.

In the S phase DNA replication occurs because DNA carries the genetic
information, two identical sets should be generated to be shared between
two identical daughter cells, so that two DNA strands are formed (Molina-
Cerón and Pérez-Granados, 2007).
In most somatic cells, centriole duplication occurs during S phase and is
marked by the formation of procentrioles at the proximal end of each
parental centriole (Holland, Lan and Cleveland, 2010).
The G2 phase starts immediately after having completed DNA synthesis
and ends when you have begun separating the chromosomes, at this stage
the preparation for mitosis occurs.
Errors in the cell cycle can result in defective cells, making them into cells
that are programmed to die; this programmed cell death is known as
apoptosis(De Erice and González, 2012).
10.2 Mitosis
Mitosis is the process in which a diploid somatic cell(2n) gives rise to two
identical daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell, and
carry out the same functions. It is divided into four stages: prophase,
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 metaphase, anaphase and telophase, which aim to make the moves
necessary to evenly distribute the genetic material duplicated for this
purpose (De Erice and González, 2012).
To learn about biology, watch this video:

Prophase: the diffuse chromatin condenses forming chromosomes with

two chromatids joined together by a centromere, with the number of
chromosomes characteristic of the species; for example, in humans, diploid
cells have 46 chromosomes, dogs have 78, the chimpanzee has 48 and
the y has 12 (Municio, 2003). The breakdown of the nuclear membrane
marks the beginning of prophase; the centrioles move to opposite poles of
the cell and begin forming the mitotic spindles.
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 Prophase
The chromosomes become visible as discrete structures as they condense, the nuclear
membrane breaks down.
Source: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12° ed.). México: Cengage Learning.

The 23 pairs of human chromosomes

 The cells of the human body are diploid, having 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Source: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12° ed.). México: Cengage Learning.

Metaphase: being freed the chromosomes reach their maximum

condensation taking the form of an X, all of the chromosomes line up
between the poles of the mitotic spindles, the microtubules join to the
kinetochores of the chromosome, and in this way, each chromatid of the
chromosome is facing opposite poles.

Metaphase
All the chromosomes line up in the middle between the spindle poles. The microtubules join
each chromatid to one of the spindle poles and the sister chromatid to the opposite pole.
Fuente: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12° ed.). México: Cengage Learning.

Anaphase: the sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome

separate, the cell elongates and the chromosomes are pulled to opposite
poles of the cell.
 Anaphase
Migration of sister chromatids to opposite poles of the cell
Source: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12° ed.). México: Cengage Learning.

Telophase: once the chromatids reach the opposite poles of the cell, they
begin to make new nuclear membranes. The chromatids uncoil and
become chromatin strands once more; the cleavage furrow begins to form
and ends with cytokinesis that is the division or the cytoplasm into equal
amounts giving rise to two identical cells (Molina-Cerón and Pérez-
Granados, 2007).

Telophase
The formation of new nuclei
Source: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12° ed.). México: Cengage Learning.
To learn more about Mitosis, we recommend you watch the following
video:

Expressionistic Studios (2014, November 21). MITOSIS | short lm[Video le].

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mHRKu21suYc

10.3 Meiosis
Meiosis occurs in organisms that reproduce sexually to produce the
gametes that participate in reproduction; meiosis is similar to mitosis in
many ways: before cell division, the cell is in interphase where the DNA is
duplicated, the duplicated strands remain joined by the centromere and the
mitotic spindles separate the chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell;
the differences are that:
• Meiosis only happens in germ cells (oogonia and spermatogonia)
• Each germ cell divides twice (meiosis I and meiosis II)
• One diploid cell produces 4 haploid cells (n): oocyte and sperm
• Genetic variability occurs
Meiosis I or the rst meiotic division: is divided into prophase I,
metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I.
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 Crossing over of homologous chromosomes
Each homologous pair of chromosomes is known as a tetrad.
Source: De Erice, E. and González, A. (2012). Biología: la ciencia de la vida (2° ed.). México:
McGraw Hill.

Prophase I: is the most important phase in meiosis since it is here where

genetic variability occurs, each chromosome pairs with its homologue and
(crossing over), or exchanging alleles of corresponding segments occurs,
and a tetrad is formed.
Metaphase I: the tetrads line up at the equator of the cell and the spindles
join to the kinetochores.
Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes separate and migrate towards
opposite sides of the cell.
Telophase I: new haploid nuclei are formed (n).

Phases of the rst meiotic division

a) prophase I, b) metaphase I, c) anaphase I, d)telophase I.
Source: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12° ed.). México: Cengage Learning.
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 Meiosis II or the second meiotic division: it is more like mitosis with the
difference that it begins with the two cells produced during meiosis I, at the
end four cells will be produced that are genetically different from each other
and from the parent cell, and they will have half the original number of
chromosomes (haploid).
Phases of meiosis II
Prophase II: the chromosomes condense; the nuclear envelop breaks up
(if it formed in telophase I).
Metaphase II: the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell and the
spindle bers join to the kinetochores.
Anaphase II: the sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite poles
of the cell.
Telophase II: the chromosomes uncoil with two new haploid nuclei (n)
appearing, nally the division of the cytoplasm or cytokinesis occurs
(Pérez-Granados y Molina Cerón, 2007).

Phases of the second meiotic division

a) prophase II, b) metaphase II, c) anaphase II, d)telophase II
Source: Evers, C., Starr, C., Starr, L. and Taggart, R. (2009). Biología: La unidad y la diversidad
de la vida. (12° ed.). México: Cengage Learning.

Consequences of meiosis:
• Reduction of the number of chromosomes from diploid to haploid.
• Increase in genetic variation.
This meiotic division of spermatogonia generates four sperm, and of
oogonia, one oocyte and three smaller cells called polar bodies.
This division by meiosis that generates specialized reproductive cells
(gametes) is called gametogenesis.
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 Click to view video

Amoeba sisters (2014, January 21). Meiosis: The Great Divide. [Video le].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=toWK0fIyFlY

Conclusion
Thanks to the processes of cell division, life has continuity, tissues
regenerate and unicellular organisms reproduce. Either by mitosis or
meiosis, cell division produces new cells that are able to continue dividing
and perpetuate the genetic code of the species, but continuous cell
divisions also lead us to aging and death: did you know that repeated cell
divisions can result in DNA damage?
At the end of each human chromosome is a repetitive sequence, called the
telomere, as a protective cap, that with each cell division, becomes shorter,
and that each time a cell divides the telomere is not replicated; accelerated
shortening of the telomere can make us vulnerable to disease, premature
aging, and even death.

Glossary
Bipartition: Divided by two.
Erythrocyte: Red blood cells that carry oxygen.
Replication: Process in which the DNA replicates before the cell divides.
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Spindle: Cellular structure localized in the cell cytoplasm of eukaryotes.
Condensation: Process in which a substance is concentrated.
Segmentation: To divide or to form segments.
Disintegration: to divide or separate.