Inductive

inference
The need for inductive inference

• Deductive arguments can help you establish the truth of the

conclusion with certainty.
• Limitation: Certainty can afford us no new knowledge.
• Inductive inference can provide us with new knowledge
• Can be used to arrive at general conclusions from particular
premises or for establishing particular propositions too.
Inductive • Aim: To establish material
truth

Inference • Materially valid type of

inference
• Premises make the conclusion
probable.
• Conclusion claims something
more than the premises.
• Particular premises to general
conclusion
 Simple enumeration:
1. Arriving at general propositions
on the basis of particular
premises.
Types of 2. Generalizations supported by
direct evidence
Inference 3. Establishing the conclusion on
the basis of uniform and
uncontradicted experience
4. "What is true of several cases is
true of all cases of that kind"
 • Based on uniform and
uncontradicted experience
Generalization • Lack of analysis of the
established by quality/property
simple • Unrestricted generality: Ex- Some
enumeration students are smart. Therefore, all
students are smart.
• Lower degree of probability
 Analogy:
1. Conclusion drawn on the basis of
known resemblances
2. Analogy is an argument from known
resemblances to unknown

Types of
resemblances
3. Going from particular instance to a
particular instance
Inference 4. Form:
A - is observed to have the properties
P1, P2, P3, ....Pn
B - is observed to have the properties
P1, P2, P3, ....Pn
A possess additional property ‘q’.
Therefore, B also has the property ‘q’
Criteria for the soundness of an analogy

• Relevant and important resemblances: If the resemblances are

in important and relevant characteristics, then it is a good
argument.
• Important differences: If there are differences in
important aspects, then it is a bad argument
• The conclusion should not assert more than what is justified
by the premises.
Exercise
Scientific Induction

PROCESS OF ESTABLISHING INDUCTIVE LEAP FROM PARTICULAR

GENERALIZATIONS ON THE BASIS OF DIRECT INSTANCES TO GENERAL CONCLUSION
AS WELL AS INDIRECT EVIDENCE
Definition of • According to Mill and Bacon,
“Scientific induction is the process of
scientific establishing generalization which
expresses a causal relationship.”
induction • Process:
1. Some instances are observed, and it
is found that they possess certain
common properties. 2. A generalization
is made that all the instances, of that
kind have the same property. 3. The
observed instance is analyzed to
discover if there is a causal relationship.
4. Experimental method is used to verify
and establish the suggested causal
relationship.
 Can we accept
Mill and Bacon's
definition?
 Assumption that all scientific
generalizations express the causal
relation

Analysis of
the Eg- All snakes are cold-blooded.

definition
Experimental evidence provides direct
evidence only. Indirect evidence can also
be given as proof.
Grounds of
Induction

• Establishing general
conclusions from particular
propositions : Inductive Leap
• How can the Inductive Leap be
justified?
• Formal Grounds of Inductive
• Material grounds of Induction
Formal grounds of
Induction
Principle of Uniformity of Nature:
1. Presence of order in nature
2. What happens once, will recur in
similar conditions
3. Importance of this principle:
"What can be truly claimed about
some cases is also true about all cases
of that kind" is justified
Formal grounds of Induction
Principle of Causation:
1. Causal relation is invariable
2. The same cause always leads to the
same effect
3. Every event is caused by some
preceding event
Material grounds of
Scientific Induction

• Empirical ways of testing the

material truth of inductive
arguments
• Observation and experimentation
• Both methods also provide us the
matter for an inductive argument.

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Is observation synonymous
with perception?
Observation

• Distinct from perception

Characteristics of
Observation

• Purposive
• Selection of significant facts
• Selection of significant aspects of a fact
Experiment
• "Observation under conditions controlled by
the investigator"
• Manipulation of the independent variable for
studying its effect on the dependent variable
• Artificially created environment
Characteristics of Experiment
• Deliberately undertaken
• Involves setting up an artificial
setup
• Systematic variation of conditions
• Can be repeated