INTRODUCTION TO

AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING

Aerodynamics
 BUOYANCY LIFT
• Balloon Flight Buoyancy is the easier method of
generating lift. The governing principle of buoyancy
lift is Archimedes’ principle. This principle says that
a difference in pressure on thesurface of a body is
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
equal to the volume displaced. = −𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 → 𝐹𝐹 = −
𝜕𝜕ℎ 𝜕𝜕ℎ
• A common example of Archimedes’ principle applied to
water. Consider one grabs two wood blocks of equal
volume and submerges one block 4 cm underneath the
surface and the second wood block 30 cm under the
surface of the water. What is the resulting lift force
acting upon the blocks?
• a) the lift force is stronger on block 2 than on block
1. b) the lift force is stronger on block 1 than on
block 2. c) the lift force is equal on blocks 1 and 2.
ARCHIMEDES‛S PRINCIPLE
Human-Carrying Balloon
• Consider the diameter and volume necessary
to lift a person via a helium balloon. Given the
densities of air and helium and the mass of
the man and the balloon material as ρair=1.22
kg/m3, ρhelium = 0.174 kg/m3
mpayload = 80 kg.
V = mpayload/(ρ – ρint) pair
phelium
= 80/(1.22-0.174)=76.48 m 3

mg
ARCHIMEDES’S PRINCIPLE
APPLICATION TO AERODYNAMICS
• Consider a balloon of cylinder with diameter D
and height h. Now lets calculate the pressure
forces on the top and bottom surfaces. 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2
𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 ; 𝐹𝐹𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = (𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 +⍴𝑔𝑔ℎ) where po is
4 4
the pressure outside of the balloon and ρ is the
density of air. By subtracting first eq. from the
second the resulting net upward force is 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2
⍴𝑔𝑔ℎ . The downward force are the weight
4
of the gas inside balloon and the weight of
payload. ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 − 𝜌𝜌𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑔𝑔=0
mpayload = (ρ – ρint)V
 Three Components in Modern
Aerodynamic Studies
• Experimental
• Theoretical (analytical or semi-
analytical)
• Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
Each approach has its own advantages and
disadvantages. Usually, the most effective
approach is to amalgamate both experimental
and theoretical/CFD investigation in a most
rational manner to solve a particular problem.
 What are the Four Forces?
The four forces of flight are lift, weight, thrust,
and drag. These forces make an object move
up and down, and faster or slower. How much
of each force there are changes, how the
object moves through the air.
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
FORCES and MOMENTS

• Airspeed is usually designated as free stream

speed U∞ or V. As the flow approaches the
aircraft, it gets disturbed and the local
velocity on the surface of the aircraft
changes. At different points on the surface
of the aircraft, different velocities will be
observed.
• Consequently the pressure distribution will
vary from the undisturbed pressure of the
stream at infinity.
 Two Mechanisms of Nature
Aerodynamics has:
• Pressure and
• Shear stress distribution on the surface.

The main focus of aerodynamics is the

determination of pressure and shear
stress distribution around such a body
surface and integrating their distribution
to obtain the resulting force and moment
acting on the body.
 Aerodynamic Forces
Pressure forces act perpendicular
to the surface

Force on the object is the vector

sum of the pressure times the
area around the object surface.

𝐹𝐹⃗ = � 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 ∆𝐴𝐴

𝐹𝐹⃗ = � 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝑳𝑳 = 𝑭𝑭𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏
𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 = 𝑫𝑫 = 𝑭𝑭𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
 Pressure Distribution and Center
of Pressure

The center of pressure is the average location of the

resultant pressure force. Pressure varies around the
surface of an object. p = p(x)
∫ 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒄𝒄𝒑𝒑 =
∫ 𝒑𝒑 𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Aerodynamic force acts throught the center of pressure.
Center of pressure moves with angle of attack.
 SHEAR STRESS
• Shear stress acts tangential to the object’s
surface and it arises due to the viscous nature
of the flow.
• It acts in the direction of the flow and has the
effect of slowing down the relative flow
between the body and the fluid. Due to the
stress, the relative flow comes to a perfect
halt at the object’s surface, at least at a
comparatively lower free stream speed.
• The effect of viscous stress is felt within a
small region near the body boundary (called
boundary layer) where the velocity changes
rapidly from zero at the wall to free stream
velocity some short distance from the wall.
 LIFTING FORCE

The lift can be generated by a wide variety of objects,

including airplane wings, rotating cylinders, spinning
balls, and flat plates. Lift is the force that holds an aircraft
in the air. The lift can be generated by any part of the
airplane, but most of the lift on a normal airliner is
generated by the wings.
 LIFT OF A ROTATING
CYLINDER
• Kutta-Joukowski Lift Theorem for a Cylinder
Lift per unit length of a cylinder acts perpendicular
to the velocity (V in m/s) and is given by: L = V
(N/m)
ρ = gas density (kg/m3), Γ = 2πbVr= vortex strength
(m2/s), b = radius of cylinder (m), s = spin (rev/s), Vr =
2πbs = rotational speed (m/s),
 Ideal Lift of a Spinning Ball
• Kutta-Joukowski Lift Theorem for a
Cylinder
Lift per unit length of a cylinder acts perpendicular to
the velocity and is given by L= ρΓV (N/m)

(N/m)
 Stream Lines

A streamline is a path traced out by a massless

particle moving with the flow.
Velocity is tangent to streamline at every point.
Mass does not cross streamlines.
Moving with the object. The flow goes from left to
right. Steady, two-dimensional flow.
 Shape Effects on Lift

Flow turning at the trailing edge is very important.

Higher turning = Greater lift
This effect is used for stability and control of the
plane
Included in the lift coefficient
Flow Around Spinning Ball
Ball rotating counter-clockwise View from top

Ideal Flow Field

Higher Velocity – Lower pressure along bottom
Amount of force depends on amount of spin,
speed of pitch, and density of the air
 PRESSURE
Bernoulli’s Principle
• In each lift generation method presented, the
flow moves more rapidly at some places than at
others. In these regions of high velocity, the
static pressure is lower. The relation between
pressure and velocity in low-speed flow is given
by the Bernoulli equation which is derived from
the second law of Newton’s:
1 2
𝑝𝑝0 = 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈1
2
or
1 2 1 2
𝑝𝑝0 = 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈1 = 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈2
2 2
 Bernoulli’s Equation

Static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure

𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
𝒑𝒑𝒔𝒔 + 𝝆𝝆𝑽𝑽 = 𝒑𝒑𝒕𝒕
𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
𝒑𝒑𝒔𝒔 + 𝝆𝝆𝑽𝑽 = 𝒑𝒑𝒔𝒔 + 𝝆𝝆𝑽𝑽
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
Wing Geometry Definitions
Leading edge
WING
PLANFORM A (aspect
ratio) = b2/S
c (chord)
Wing
Trailing edge Span (b) area (S)
 Aerodynamic Lift and Drag
• Lift is the force perpendicular to the
freestream. It is generated by deflecting the
freestream air. According to Newton‛s 1st
and 3rd laws, lift is the reaction to the rate
of change of momentum of air, perpendicular
to the freestream:
1 2
𝐿𝐿 = 𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈∞ 𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿
2
where U ͚ is the freestream velocity, CL is the
wing lift coefficient and S is the planform
area of the wing.
 Lift Generation

In low-speed flows of air (< 0.3 times the speed

of sound or Mach 0.3) there are three main
ways to create aerodynamic lift. All of these
involve directing the momentum perpendicular
to the free stream. The angle of attack can be
varied, camber can be added to the wing, or lift
can be induced through vortices.
Varying the Angle of Attack
• Immagine a wing with a symmetric airfoil
as shown. The airsteam around it is not
deflected down and there is no air pushing
the wing up. The wing creates no lift.
Same Wing at Some Positive AOA
Lift oefficient CL

slope=dCL/dα

αmax aoa α
 Introducing Camber

• In the CL vs a graph shown above, the lift

coefficient is zero when the angle of attack is
zero. However, not all airfoils are symmetric.
Most of them are cambered and even at zero
angles of attack they produce a positive lift.
 Pressure Coefficient
• The pressure coefficient is a way to express
the pressure with respect to some reference
pressure, as a “dimensionless” quantity.
2
𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝∞ 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝∞ 𝑈𝑈
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = = =1−
1 2 𝑞𝑞∞ 𝑈𝑈∞
𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈∞
2
• Cp = 0 indicates the undisturbed freestream
value of the static pressure
Cp = 1 indicates a stagnation point
Cp < 0 indicates a suction region
 Airfoil
• Airfoil means the shape of a cross-section of
a wing. It is a two-dimensional concept. Airfoil
properties are used to calculate and design
wing properties.
• The airfoil section lift coefficient, is denoted
as Cl. Wing‛s lift coefficient is denoted as CL.
These will vary with the angle of attack a.
• If the airfoil is cambered, the lift coefficient
is positive even at zero AOA. 𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙
𝑐𝑐𝑙𝑙 = (𝛼𝛼 − 𝛼𝛼𝑜𝑜 )
• The lift curve slope is 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿
≤ 2𝜋𝜋 where α
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in radians
 Chordwise Pressure Distribution
Over an Airfoil in Low-Speed Flow
 Vortex-Induced Lift
The third way to generate lift in low speed flight is
vortex-induced lift. The vortex generated at the wing
tip. Generally the vortex at the wing tip means lift
loss and drag rise. However vortex has regions of high
velocity and low pressure. If we can make the vortex
go close to the upper surface of the wing, this low
pressure can provide suction we need to generate
lift.
 EXAMPLE 1: Which Wing
Provides More Lift?
• Given two wings having the same cross sections,
one full size (Sfs= 7 m2) and one a scale model
(Sm= 0.2 m2), each with different airspeeds
(Vfs=10 m/s, Vm= 20 m/s) and air densities (ρ = 1
kg/m3, ρ = 1.2 kg/m3) and generating lifts as
Lfs= 260 N and Lm=70 N, compare the angles of
attack. If CL is greater in the model the aoa is
higher. 2
2(260𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 )
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = 3 2 2
= 0.74
(1.0𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 )(10𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠) (7𝑚𝑚 )
2(70𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 )
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = 3 2 2
= 1.32
(1.2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 )(20𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠) (0.2𝑚𝑚 )
 DRAG
• Drag is force along the freestream direction
acting on the vehicle. It is due to irreversible
loss of momentum. It is the pressure
resultant in the flow direction and the shear
force from viscosity . Drag is given by:
1 2
𝐷𝐷 = 𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈∞ 𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷
2
• The lift to drag ratio which is also known as
aerodynamic efficiency: 𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿
𝐸𝐸 = =
𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷
EXAMPLE 2: Compare the Drag
Coefficients of Previous Airfoils
• Does the full size wing (10.5 N) or scale model
(2 N) in the previous example have more drag
angle of attack?
2(10.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 )
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 3 2 2
= 0.020
(1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 )(10𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠) (7𝑚𝑚 )
For the model wing
2(2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 )
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 3 2 2
= 0.042
(1.2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 )(20𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠) (0.2𝑚𝑚 )
 Experimental Studies

• They are conducted in wind tunnels.

• Wind tunnels are used to perform
aerodynamic measurements on scaled down
models.
• Usually measurement of pressure on model
surface, forces and moments acting on the
model, wake survey, flow visualization etc are
performed to obtain valuable understanding
of the flow problem.
Some Advantages and Disadvantages

• The main disadvantages are high capital and

running cost of a wind tunnel, the skill needed for
manufacturing the model, acquisition, and
interpretation of data etc.
• Another drawback is due to the difficulty of
simultaneously maintaining the Mach number and
Reynolds number experienced in flight. Re
number is the ratio of inertia force and viscous
force.
• Advantage is less costly and safer and can be
performed in comfortable and stationary
conditions.
Measuring the Drag
WIND TUNNEL
MODELS
TEST SECTION
 Similarity Parameter

Aerodynamics forces depend on Re and M.

For a valid experiment, Reynolds number and
Mach number must match flight conditions.
Mach Number
Speed of Sound
Newton‛s Laws of Motion
Conservation of Mass

mass flow rate=density x

(ρVAt)a = (ρVAt)b (ρVA)a = (ρVA)b area x velocity (kg/s)
ρ= density, V= Velocity, t= Time
Propulsive Force (Thrust)
Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of Energy
THEORETICAL and CFD STUDIES
• These studies have led to valuable understanding of wide
range of flow problems.
• A basic limitation stems from the fact that the
governing equations of real viscous compressible flow
around a body, the Navier-Stokes equations can not in
general be solved theoretically.
• Navier-Stokes equations, in principle, are capable of
giving a totally adequate description of all flow regimes
of interest to the aerodynamicist. However that needs
highly accurate numerical solution of governing equations
subject to suitable initial and boundary conditions.
• Very often, instead of solving the full Navier-Stokes
equations its simplified forms are used. The simplest
form under assumption of inviscid, incompressible and
irrotational flow.
BOUNDARY LAYER
ATTACHED AND SPERATED
FLOW
THE EFFECT OF SMOOTH
AND DIMPLED SURFACES
 CENTRE OF PRESSURE
• All distributed loads acting on the body
surface will give the resultant R which act at
center of pressure. The pitching moment
about the leading edge of the airfoil MLE
obtained by integrating the effect of
pressure and shear stress distribution acting
on the entire airfoil should be identical to
that produced by R acting through the center
of pressure. Therefore we can write
𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = −(𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 )𝑁𝑁

𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =− ≈− 𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = − 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐/4
𝑁𝑁 𝐿𝐿 4
 CENTER OF PRESSURE and
AERODYNAMIC CENTER
It can be shown that for thin symmetric airfoils
the center of pressure is the quarter cord
position. This means that about the quarter cord
position the pitching moment coeffiecient for
such airfoils is zero and has no dependence on
angle of attack. Therefore for thin symmetric
airfoils that point is located at quarter chord. It
can be shown that for thin cambered airfoils too
the pitching moment remains constant. By
definition aerodynamic center of an airfoil is
that point about which pitching moment is
independent of angle of attack.
 EXAMPLE 3
• For a cambered airfoil at an angle of 5o the
lift coefficient is 0.94 and the pitching
moment coefficient about quarter chord = 0.1.
Find the location of the center of pressure.
What is the pitch moment coefficient about
the leading edge of the airfoil?
𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1 −0.1
= − = 0.356
𝑐𝑐 4 0.94
Assuming that the lift force is early equal to normal force
𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 /𝑞𝑞∞ 𝑐𝑐 2 ) 𝑐𝑐x𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =− =− =− =−
𝑁𝑁 𝐿𝐿 (𝐿𝐿/𝑞𝑞∞ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙
𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = −𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙 = −0.94𝑥𝑥𝑥.356 = −0.337
𝑐𝑐
Resolving the Force and Moment

• FORCE: Lift (L), drag (D) and side force

• MOMENT: Pitching (M), rolling and yawing.

Lift coefficient,
CL contains all the
complex
dependencies and
is usually
determined
experimentally. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑪𝑪𝒍𝒍 =
𝝆𝝆𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄
 Weight Equation

𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
In general: 𝑭𝑭 = 𝑮𝑮 𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒅
Force equals a gravitational constant times the product of the
masses divided by the square of the distance between the
masses.
𝑚𝑚
On Earth : 𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑒 = 𝐺𝐺 2𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 9.81 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑾𝑾𝒆𝒆 = 𝒎𝒎𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒆
Weight equals mass times gravitational acceleration
DRAG
 DRAG COEFFICIENT
• Drag is given by D =(1/2)ρU2SCD.
• The drag coefficient is low-speed flow
is composed of three parts:
CD = CDo +CDfric + CDi
where CDo is the parasite drag
coefficient, CDfric is the skin friction drag
coefficient and CDi is the lift-induced
drag.
 PARASITE/PROFILE DRAG
• The term CDo is the parasite drag coefficient,
also known as the profile drag coefficient.
This term is independent of lift. It is usually
due to the losses of stagnation pressure
which occur when part of the flow separates
somewhere along the wing or body surface. In
high speed flight, the effects of shock and
wave drag must be added to this and becomes
the dominant source of drag.
 SKIN FRICTION DRAG
• CDfric is the skin friction drag coefficient
which is due to viscosity. This becomes
important in two limits: some where the size
of the wing or the speed of the flow, is
extremely small, as might be the case for an
insect-sized aircraft. This is called the «low
Reynolds number» limit. The other limit is
that of high-speed flight, where the skin
friction can be severe enough to heat up the
wing surface to melting point. If inviscid flow
is assumed this term can be neglected.
 INDUCED DRAG
• CDi is the lift-induced drag coefficient.
In low-speed flight, this is the largest
cause of drag, because the lift is
needed to fly and this drag is caused by
lift. It can be calculated with the
following formula: CDi = CL2/(πAe)
 Speed for minimum drag
• D = Do + Di = qS(CDo+CDi). Let us consider what
it takes to keep lift equal to weight, L = W;
𝑊𝑊 2 1
so CL=W/qS; 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 +
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑊𝑊 2 1 𝑊𝑊 2 1
= 𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 − 2 = 0 ; 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
CDo =CDi
 EXAMPLE 3
• An aircraft has a wing loading (W/S) of 6250
N/m2, an aspect ratio of 7.7, and a wing span
of 61 m. We will assume that its spanwise
efficiency factor is 0.90. Let’s assume that
the profile drag coefficient is given by CDo =
0.015. At 11.000 m the standard air density is
0.36 kg/m3
• CDi=CDo
CL=W/(qS)=6250/(0.5x0.36xV2)=34722.2/V2
CDi=CL2/(πAe)=34722.22/(πx7.7x0.9xV4)=0.015
V=246.50 m/s
 EXAMPLE 4
• Given two wings having same cross sections, one full
size (Sfs= 7 m2) and one a scale model (Sm= 0.2 m2),
each with different airspeeds (Vfs=10 m/s, Vm= 20
m/s) and air densities (ρ = 1 kg/m3, ρ = 1.2 kg/m3) and
generating lifts as Lfs= 260 N and Lm=70 N. Which
one have more induced drag if both have the same
aspect ratio of 7.6 and distribution coefficient of
2
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 0.742
0.9? 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = = = 0.025; 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖,𝑚𝑚 =
2
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋.6𝑥𝑥𝑥.9
1.32 1
=0.081; Dfs= 1x102x7x0.025= 8.75 N
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋.6𝑥𝑥𝑥.9 2
1
𝐷𝐷𝑚𝑚 = x1.2x20
2
WINGLETS
THRUST
THRUST
FORCES ON A FALLING OBJECT

𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
𝑫𝑫 = 𝑪𝑪𝒅𝒅 𝝆𝝆𝑽𝑽 𝑺𝑺
𝟐𝟐
 AERODYNAMICS OF WINGS
AND A/C
• Effects of Finite Aspect Ratio At the ends
of the wings, the pressure difference between
the upper and lower sides is lost, as the flow
rolls up into a vortex. This does not happen
with airfoils, because their span are
considered infinite and the flow never rolls up.
 AERODYNAMICS OF WINGS
AND A/C
• The finite wing effect causes overall lift to
be reduce relative to the airfoil lift value
predicted for a section of an infinite wing.
The lift vector is tilted back, so that an
induction drag is created.
GLIDERS
 FORCES ACTING ON
GLIDERS
• Three forces:
– Lift
– Drag
– Weight
GLIDE ANGLE
LIFT-TO-DRAG RATIO

Horizontal Force Equation: 𝐿𝐿 sin 𝛼𝛼 = 𝐷𝐷 cos 𝛼𝛼

Horizontal Force Equation: 𝐿𝐿 sin 𝛼𝛼 = 𝐷𝐷 cos 𝛼𝛼

VECTOR BALANCE OF FORCES
FOR A GLIDER

Equation: Vertical: 𝐿𝐿 cos 𝑎𝑎 + 𝐷𝐷 sin 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑊𝑊 = 0

Horizontal: 𝐿𝐿 sin 𝑎𝑎 − 𝐷𝐷 cos 𝑎𝑎 =0
𝐿𝐿 cos 𝑎𝑎 1
From the Horizontal equation: = =
𝐷𝐷 sin 𝑎𝑎 tan 𝑎𝑎
𝐿𝐿 1
For small angles, tan a ≅ a (in radians): =
𝐷𝐷 𝑎𝑎
UPDRAFTS and DOWNDRAFTS
 EXERCISES
• What is the pressure coefficient at the
stagnation point of an airfoil section?
• What is the pressure coefficient on a flat
surface aligned with the freestream?
• Cp at the suction peak of an airfoil is -1.2.
What is the pressure there as a percentage
of the freestream static pressure?
• What is the velocity at this point, as a
percentage of the freestream velocity?
 AIRFOIL
• Airfoil means aerodynamically designed wing
section. It is a 2-D concept. Airfoil properties
are used to calculate and design wing
properties.
• The airfoil lift coefficient, also called the
section lift coefficient, is denoted as Cl.
• If the airfoil is cambered, the lift coefficient
is positive even at zero aoa and reaches zero
only at some negative value of a. This is called
the “zero-lift aoa” αo.
• Thus the airfoil coefficient is
𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙
𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙 = (𝛼𝛼 − 𝛼𝛼𝑜𝑜 ) ; ≤ 2𝜋𝜋
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 NACA AIRFOILS
• NACA airfoils are divided into ‘four digit’, ‘five digit’ and ‘6-
series laminar flow airfoils’. Common examples NACA 2414,
NACA 23012 and NACA 65-218 respectively.
• For NACA 2414, the first digit represents maximum camber
in hundredths of chord, the second digit is the location of
maximum camber and last two digits give the maximum
thickness in hundredths of chord.
• For NACA 23012 the first digit when multiplied by 3/2 gives
the design lift coefficient in tenths, the next two digits when
divided by 2 gives the maximum camber along the chord in
hundredths and the final two digits gives the maximum
thickness.
• For NACA 65-218 the first digit stands for the series,
second gives location of minimum pressure in tenths of chord
from L.E., the third digit is design lift coefficient in tenths
and the last two is as in the former airfoils.
AIRFOIL FAMILIES
LIFT COEFFICIENT OF FINITE WING

• Due to finite aspect ratio, lift curve slope of

a wing will be smaller than the lift curve slope
of the airfoil shape it uses. If we set the
slope of airfoil‛s lift curve slope to ao=dCl/da,
we can find the lift curve of a wing using this
airfoil with the equation:
𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜
= 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1+
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋e
 DRAG COEFFICIENT
• The drag coefficient in low-speed flow is
composed of two parts: 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 + 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖
where CDo is the zero lift drag which is form
drag coefficient plus skin friction drag
coefficient CDfriction which is due to viscosity.
CDi is the lift-induced drag coefficient. In low-
speed flight this is the largest cause of drag. It
is calculated by:
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿2
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 =
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋e
ZERO LIFT DRAG
Form drag Skin friction
0% 100%

~10% ~90%

~90% ~10%

100% 0%
EXAMPLE 5: CALCULATING DRAG
• CDo of a small airliner is 0.018. The wing
aspect ratio is 6.2. Assume span wise
efficiency is 0.9. The lift coefficient is 0.5.
Find the total drag coefficient. If the density
is 1.1 kg/m3, the span is 30 m and the speed is
200 m/s, find the drag.
0. 52
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 + 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 = 0.018 + = 0.0323
𝜋𝜋6.2𝑥𝑥0.9
1 2
𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 ( 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 )𝑆𝑆 = 0.0323(0.5𝑥𝑥1.1𝑥𝑥2002 )145.2 = 103,152𝑁𝑁
2
2
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 2 302
𝐴𝐴 = ⇒ 𝑆𝑆 = = = 145.2𝑚𝑚2
𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴 6.2
EFFECT OF CAMBER AND
ASPECT RATIO
 CLASS DISCUSSION
• Would more lift be provided by a fluid
with a greater density than air?
• How do aircraft designers determine
the correct shape for a wing?
• Explain how a propeller provides thrust
in the same way a wing generates lift.
• An equation for the lift was supplied
previously. What would be the two
forces involved in a propeller?
 CLASS DISCUSSION
• Would a propeller work better in a fluid with
a greater density than air?
• Do you think different airplanes need
differently shaped airfoils?
• During the design phase, how is a wing's
theoretical shape tested?
• How are the wings of a small plane, like a
Cessna, different from a large one, like a
passenger jet?