Engineering Experimentation

Lecture Notes

8. Measuring Fluid Flow Rate, Fluid Velocity, Fluid Level, and Combustion Pollutants.......................... 1
8.1. SYSTEMS FOR MEASURING FLUID FLOW RATE ............................................................................ 1
8.1.1. Pressure Differential Devices ................................................................................................ 1
8.1.2. Turbine Flowmeters .............................................................................................................. 7

8. Measuring Fluid Flow Rate, Fluid Velocity, Fluid Level, and

Combustion Pollutants

In this chapter, we describe the most common methods for measuring fluid flow rate, fluid
velocity, and liquid level. Also discussed are devices used to measure the pollutants in the
exhaust flows from combustion processes.

8.1. SYSTEMS FOR MEASURING FLUID FLOW RATE

In engineering experiments and in process plants, people often need to know the quantity of
a fluid flowing through a conduit. The fluid may be either a gas or a liquid, and the information
is normally needed on a time-rate basis (e.g., mass flow rate in kg/s or volume flow rate in
m3/s). Because fluid-flow-rate measurements are so common and because there are so many
different applications, a large number of distinctly different fluid flow measurement devices
(flowmeters) have been developed. Although we describe the most common flowmeters in
this chapter, the user should consult appropriate references or vendors before applying the
devices.

8.1.1. Pressure Differential Devices

Technical Basis: The Bernoulli equation accurately describes the flow of an incompressible
fluid inside a duct or pipe if frictional and other losses are negligible.
For two axial locations (sections) in a duct, labeled 1 and 2 in Figure 8.1, the Bernoulli equation
takes the form

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 (8.1)
Where V is the fluid velocity, P is the fluid pressure, z is the elevation of the location in the
pipe relative to datum, ρ is the fluid density, and g is the acceleration of gravity.

Figure 8.1. Flow in a duct with Area change

The velocities at two axial locations in the duct with different areas are related through the
conservation of mass equation;

(8.2)
where A is the duct cross-sectional area and ṁ is the fluid mass flow rate (e.g., kg/s). For an
incompressible fluid, the density is a constant and Eq. (8.2) is usually written in the form

(8.3)
where Q is the volume flow rate (e.g., m3/s). Equations (8.1) and (8.3) can be combined to
obtain an expression for the velocity at section 2:

(8.4)
Substituting into Eq. (8.3) yields the equation for the flow rate:

(8.5)
Equation (8.5) is the theoretical basis for a class of flowmeters in which the flow rate is
determined from the pressure change caused by variation in the area of a conduit. These
flowmeters - the venturi tube, the flow nozzle, and the orifice meter- are described in the

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following sections. The devices are collectively called head meters because they depend on
the change in head (P/ρg + z), which has units of length. Their theory and application are
presented in detail in the publication Fluid Meters prepared by the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME, 1971).
Venturi Tube The venturi tube, shown schematically in Figure 8.2, is probably the most
expensive of the common flowmeters based on Eq. (8.5), but it has the lowest energy losses.
As Figure 8.2 shows, the area of the pipe contracts from the initial pipe area A1 to the
minimum area A2 (called the throat). The area then gradually increases to the initial pipe area,
A1. If the venturi is oriented horizontally, the elevation terms Z1 and Z2 are the same and
cancel out. If the sensing lines are filled with the same fluid at the same density as is contained
in the pipe, the pressure transducer measures the difference in the term (P + gρz) at the
upstream section and at the minimum area. That is, ΔPtrans = (P + gρz)1 - (P + gρz)2, regardless
of the flowmeter's orientation. If a manometer is used to measure the pressure difference,
the analysis is slightly more complicated and the reader should consult fluid mechanics texts
such as White (1999).

Fig 8.2
The volume flow rate for a venturi tube is given by

(8.6)
This equation is identical to Eq. (8.5), except that the right-hand side has been multiplied by
C. The factor C, called the discharge coefficient, is used to account for nonideal effects. C is a
function of the diameter ratio, β = D2/ D1 = d/ D, and a parameter called the Reynolds number,
which is defined as

(8.7)
where μ is the fluid viscosity. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter, and its value
is independent of the unit system. It is possible to obtain values for the discharge coefficient
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by calibrating the venturi tube. However, if the venturi tube is constructed to a standardized
geometric shape, the performance will be standardized and it is possible to use discharge
coefficients available in the literature. Table 8.1 gives values of the discharge coefficient C for
venturi tubes constructed according to the ASME geometric specification (Figure 8.3) with
three different construction methods for the entrance cone. All have a smooth throat.
Table 8.1

Fig 8.3
In general, the discharge coefficient will decrease at values of Reynolds numbers lower than
the ranges given in Table 8.1 but will change little at higher values. For properly constructed
venturi tubes within the ranges in Table 8.1, the flow coefficient is accurate to 1.0% without
calibration. This characteristic of good accuracy without calibration, shared with other ASME
head meters, is a major advantage and is particularly important in large sizes, where it is often
very difficult to perform accurate calibrations. Smaller meters, below the size ranges of Table
8.1, may require calibration.
Head meters are often used to determine the flow rate of compressible fluids (gases). It is
common to express the compressible fluid flow rate as the mass flow rate, m, rather than the
volume flow rate often used with liquids. In compressible flow, the density is a function of the
pressure and temperature and will change as the fluid moves through the flowmeter. Since
Eq. (8.4) is based on incompressible flow analysis, it is necessary to correct it for mildly
compressed flows. In this case, an equation for the mass flow rate is

(8.8)

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The elevation (z) terms in Eq. (8.6) are usually insignificant in compressible flow, so they have
been deleted in Eq. (8.8). The term Y in Eq. (8.8) is called the expansion facto, and
compensates for the fluid density change between section 1 and section 2. Y is a function of
the flowing gas and the ratios A2/A1 and P2/P1. Note that the density under the radical sign is
ρ1 , which is consistent with the ASME definition of Y. The venturi tube expression for Y given
in ASME (1989) is

(8.9)
where γ is the gas specific heat ratio, r= P2/P1 and, β = D2/ D1 = d/D. The expression is valid for
r greater than 0.75. The ASME uncertainty on Y for venturi tubes is given by ± [4 + 100 β8][(P1
- P2)/P1] % . For example, for β = 0.65 and (P1 - P2)/P1 = 0.1, the uncertainty on Y will be ±0.72%
.
Venturi tubes are simple, reliable devices, which often do not require calibration and have
relatively low insertion losses (pressure losses caused by the flowmeter). For minimum
pressure loss, the diffuser angle, a2, should be closer to 7° than 15°. On the other hand, venturi
tubes are normally quite expensive to construct. Venturi tubes are not suitable for flows in
which material tends to collect on the walls, since the calibration will be changed significantly.
A given venturi tube can be used over a rather limited range of flow rates. Examining Eq. (8.6)
one can see that the pressure difference is proportional to the square of the flow rate. This
means that a venturi designed for an appropriate pressure difference at the upper end of the
flow range will have a very low-pressure difference at the lower end of the flow range. For
example, a venturi tube with a pressure change of 1 psi at maximum flow will have a pressure
change of only 0.01 psi at 10% of maximum flow.

Flow Nozzle The flow nozzle, shown in Figure 8.4, is similar to the venturi except that after
the fluid passes through the minimum flow area, the flow area expands suddenly to the pipe
area. This results in much larger fluid energy losses. As with the venturi tube, flow nozzles are
constructed to dimensional standards. The ASME has designated standard geometry for long-
radius nozzles, as shown in Figure Equation 8.5. (8.6) for venturi tubes is also applicable to
flow nozzles.

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 Fig 8.4 Flow nozzle
Values and formulas for discharge coefficients, C, are given in ASME (1989) and can be used if
calibration is not possible. As shown in Figure 8.4, there are two possible locations for the
pressure measurements. For pipe wall taps, the upstream tap should be one pipe diameter
upstream from the nozzle-inlet plane. The downstream tap should be 0.5 pipe diameter from
the nozzle-inlet plane but not farther downstream than the nozzle-outlet plane. For long-
radius flow nozzles with pipe wall taps, the discharge coefficient can be computed from

(8.10)
where the pipe diameter D is in inches and ReD is the Reynolds number based on the pipe
inside diameter. The applicable range of pipe diameters is 2 to 30 in., the range of the Reynolds
number is from 104 to 6 X 106, and the range of β is from 0.2 to 0.8. ASME gives a tolerance
on the discharge coefficient of ±2 % . For nozzles using throat taps, the reader is referred to
ASME (1989). Flow nozzles can also be used for the flow of gases, and Eqs. (8.8) and (8.9) are
applicable. The tolerance on Y is ± [2(P2 - P1 )/P1] % .

Orifice Meter The orifice meter, shown in Figure 8.6(a), is one of the most popular differential
pressure devices because it is simple to install and relatively inexpensive. Fluid energy losses
are significantly larger than in venturi tubes. As Figure 8.6(a) shows, the minimum fluid flow
area does not occur at the orifice plate but at a location farther downstream. This minimum
flow area is called the vena contracta. The orifice meter described in ASME (1989) is the
square-edged orifice type, shown in Figure 8.6(b). The orifice is a circular hole cut into a thin
plate. The hole is then chamfered at the downstream face to leave a thin edge. The thin edge
and the inlet face should form a sharp 90° angle. The plate is then bolted between the flanges
at a pipe joint. There are three standard locations for the pressure taps, as shown in Figure
8.7.

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 Fig 8.6

Fig 8.7
For flange taps, the pressure-sensing holes should be located 1 in. upstream and 1 in.
downstream of the faces of the orifice plate. For D-1/2D taps, the taps are located one pipe
diameter upstream and 1/2 pipe diameter downstream of the orifice plate.

8.1.2. Turbine Flowmeters

Turbine flowmeters may be used to measure the flow rate of clean liquids. In these devices
(Figure 8.8), the fluid turns a turbine wheel or propeller that is supported in the fluid stream.
The turbine wheel is either made of a magnetic metarial or has a magnetic material embedded
in the tips. The turbine rotates, and each time a tip passes the magnetic pickup, an electrical
pulse is generated. The output signal is a frequency that is proportional to the flow rate.
Turbine flowmeters of this type are simple and hold their calibration well. They acan normally
be used with high confidence using only the manufacturer’s calibration. Accuracies as good as
+- ½% of reading are readily available. The linearity of output tends to drop off at low flows,
and most become less accurate at flows less than 5 to 10% of maximum rated flow.

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Fig 8.8