Ce412 - Chapter 02 - Transportation As A System

CHAPTER 02
TRANSPORTATION AS A SYSTEM
CE412 - PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
1
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
The Transportation System in a developed nation is an aggregation of vehicles, guideways,
terminal facilities, and control systems that move freight and passengers. These systems are
usually operated according to established procedures and schedules in the air, on land, and on water.
The set of physical facilities, control systems, and operating procedures referred to as the nation’s transportation system is not
a system in the sense that each of its components is part of a grand plan or was developed in a conscious manner to meet a
set of speci ed regional or national goals and objectives. Rather, the system has evolved over a period of time and is the
result of many independent actions taken by the private and public sectors, which act in their own or in the public’s interest.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
CE412 - PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING ENGR. CHRISTIAN PIMENTEL
2
fi
Each day, decisions are made that a ect the way transportation services are used.
Few examples of how transportation services evolve and a transportation system takes
shape.
• The decision of a rm to ship its freight by rail or truck…
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
3
fi
ff
• The decision of an investor to start a new airline…
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
4
• The decision of a consumer to purchase an automobile…
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
5
• The decision of a state or municipal government to build a new highway or airport…
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
6
• The decisions of Congress to deny support to a new aircraft…
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
7
• The decisions of a federal transportation agency to approve truck safety standards…
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
8
EVOLUTION OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
9
WALKING
First form of Transport
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
10
ANIMAL AS TRANSPORT MODES
Animals such as Donkeys, Mules, Horses were used as transport modes for person and goods.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
11
PRIMITIVE LOG RAFTS (8,000 BCE)
A tree trunk oating downstream with the current, might be the rst stimulus to man’s inventiveness
in this direction.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
12
fl
fi
THE EGYPTIAN ERA (6,000 BCE - 3,000 BCE)
• Egyptians built some of the earliest boats ever

recorded.
• The rst ones were made from papyrus reeds

and propelled by rowing.
• Mainly used for trade.
• One of the greatest technical and artistic

achievement.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
13
fi
THE VIKING SHIPS
Two di erent classes of Viking era ships: War ships and Merchant ships.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
14
ff
INVENTION OF WHEEL (3,500 BC)
The earliest wheels are believed to have been used for pottery.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
15
WHEELED CARTS
Wheeled carts were pulled for transportation of goods.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
16
ANIMAL CARTS
Animals were trained to pull carts
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
17
WAGONS, COACHES AND CARRIAGES
Horse driven wagons, coaches and carriages as superior modes of transportation
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
18
THE DREAM OF FLYING “LEONARDO DA VINCI’S FLYING MACHINE” (1490)
In about 1490 Leonardo da Vinci drew plants for a ying machine.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
19
fl
THE FIRST TRUE AUTOMOBILE (1769)
In 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built a three-wheeled steam-driven vehicle.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
20
BALLOONING (1783)
French Aeronauts Jacques-Alexandre-Cesar Charles and Marie-Noel Robert made the rst manned
ascent in a gas balloon, December 1, 1783.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
21
fi
THE AGE OF CANALS (18th Century)
Facilitated ow of goods, unprecedented exchanges between regions, specialization of labor, and

access to more distant energy and raw materials resources.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
22
fl
DRAISIENNE (1817), The First two-wheeler
First two wheeler rider-propelled machine. The machine was made of wood, and the seated rider
propelled himself by padding his feet against the gorund.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
23
STEAM AS FUEL (1819)
Steam-hauled public railway began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. Reduced time
used to transport goods and allowed for increased specialization.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
24
THE CHESHUNT RAILWAY, 1825, World’s First Monorail
First passenger drawn Monorails in the world. The design was an overhead track from which
carriages were suspended, drawn by a single horse.
The world’s rst Monorail was drawn by a horse.

CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
25
fi
THE OMNIBUS (1826)
The Omnibus 1826 was the rst land based innovation in public transportation system. These were
horse drawn passenger.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
26
fi
THE GREAT RAILWAY ERA (1830s - 1930s)
The rst railways were constructed in the 1830s. Extended the range, speed, and productivity levels
of transport, earlier achieved by the canals. With railways, a new era of coal, steam, steel and the
telegraph began.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
27
fi
THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL MANNED FLIGHT, 1853
English aeronautic pioneer George Cayley designed a glider in 1853, recorded as the rst successful
manned ight.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
28
fl
fi
THE VELOCIPEDE, 1860s
Velocipede, version of the bicycle reinvented in the 1860s by the Michaux family of Paris. The bicycle
version had iron and wood construction and the lack of springs earned it the nickname
“boneshaker”. It was driven by pedalling cranks on the front axle.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
29
THE PHILADELPHIA CENTENNIAL, First Steam Driven Monorail, 1876
The rst steam driven Monorail, demonstrated at the United States Centennial Exposition, 1876. The
ornately designed deouble-decker vehicle had two main wheels, the rear one driven by a rotary
steam engine.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
30
fi
THE WORLD’S FIRST ELECTRIC TRAM, 1876
The World’s rst electric tram was exhibited in the 1879 Berlin Commercial Exposition. The tram had
a driver seat, 3 little carriages, each for 3 people capacity. Run in Direct current (approx. 149 volts).
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
31
fi
PENNY-FARTHING BICYCLE, 1883
Type of bicycle that was most used between the time of the introduction of the French mass
produced chain-driven bicycle Boneshaker in 1860s and the English “safety bicycle” in 1880s.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
32
THE SAFETY BICYCLE, Late 1885
The Rover Safety bicycle developed by John Kemp Starley during the 1880s is the forerunner of all
modern bicycles. It has all the basic features of standard modern bicycles, including chain drive,
which meant that both wheels could be the same size.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
33
COAL AS FUEL, 1880s
During the late 1800s to the 1950s, coal was the world’s primary heating and transportation fuel. In
1880, coal powered a steam engine attached to the world’s rst electric generator.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
34 fi
DAIMLER REITWAGEN, The First true Motorcycle (1885)
Two German inventors, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach managed to produce rst modern
model of motorcycle. Attached small petroleum/gasoline based combustion engine to the wooden
bicycle frame.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
35
fi
THE FIRST GASOLINE CAR, 1885
Benz ran his rst car in 1885, Daimler in 1886, HAmmel in 1888. The rst stationary gasoline engine
developed by Carl Benz was a one-cylinder two-stroke unit.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
36
fi
fi
PILCHER HAWK - THE MONOPLANE GLIDER, 1896
In 1896, Percy Sinclair Pilcher deisgned, built, and ew “the Pilcher Hawk” a monoplane glider with
birdlike wings.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
37
fl
THE GASOLINE POWERED BUS, 1900s
These buses had a nominal seating capacity of 20 with a four cylinder gasoline engine developing 40
horsepower at street speeds of up to 32 km (20 miles) per hour.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
38
AIRSHIPS OR BLIMPS, 1900s
Began to be built in early 1900s. Infalted by hydrogen gas to keep them aloft. Had engines with
propellers as well as aps to control the direction and speed of ight.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
39
fl
fl
WRIGHT GLIDER, 1902
First fully controllable Glider by Wright brothers in 1902.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
40
WRIGHT FLYER, 1905
First practical Flying machine by the Wright brothers, The Wright Flyer in 1905.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
41
THE UNSINKABLE TITANIC, 1912
On April 10, 1912, The RMS Titanic embarked in its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York
City. The RMS Titanic was Worldd’s largest passenger ship at that time and was thought of as an
Unsinkable ship.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
42
AUTOMOBILE FROM A LUXURY TO A NECESSITY
Introduced to the world in 1908 by henry Ford, Model T was one of the rst mass production
vehicles. Turned the automobile from a luxury asset into a necessity by making it cheap, versatile,
and easy to maintain.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
43
fi
VICKERS VIMY, 1919
The Vickers Vimy plane used by John Alcock and Arthur Brown in the rst nonstop transatlantic ight
in 1919.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
44
fi
fl
DOUGLAS DC-3 PASSENGER AIRCRAFT, 1935
Douglas DC-3 passenger aircraft. which rst ew in 1935. The DC-3 dominated the airline business
until the end of World War II.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
45
fi
fl
THE HOVER CRAFT, 1959
The Hovercraft, are a series of British-built and British-operated air-cushion vehicles (ACVs) that for
40 years (1959-2000) ferried passengers and automobiles across the English Channel between
southern England and northern France.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
46
BELL HELICOPTER 206-B (JET RANGER), 1966
The bell Helicopter 206-B (Jet Ranger) was introduced in 1966. The turboshaft helicopter could carry
four passengers and was often used for deployment of re ghters.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
47
fi
fi
CONCORDE SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT, 1969
Concorde, the rst supersonic passenger-carrying commercial airplane (or supersonic transport,
SST), built jointly by aircraft manufacturers in Great Britain and France.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
48
fi
TUPOLEV TU-144 (BREAKING THE SOUND BARRIER), 1969
On June 5, 1969, Tu-144 became the rst passenger aircraft to break the sound barrier.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
49
fi
AIRBUS 320, 1988
Airbus A320 short- to medium- range jetliner, rst ew in 1987 and went into commercial service in
1988. The aircraft typically accomodates 150 passengers. It’s success led to family of derivative
aircraft of varying passenger capacities, including the A318, A319 and A321.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
50
fi
fl
BOMBARDIER GLOBAL EXPRESS, 1999
Bombardier Global Express long-range business jet with twin engines. Bombardier had range of
more than 11,100 km (6,900 miles) and can approach the speed of sound.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
51
MAGLEV, 2003
A Maglev vehicle rides on an air cushion created by electromagnetic reaction between an on-board
device and another embedded in it’s guideway. Propulsion and braking are achieved by varying the
frequency and voltage of a linear motor system embodied in the guideway and reacting with
magnets on the vehicles.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
52
TIMELINE: Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century
1800 1900 1950 2000
Steam Engine Automation
MARITIME
Locks Docks Steamships Iron Hulls Liners Bulk Ships Supertankers
Containerships
ROAD
Omnibus Surfaced Roads Automobiles Trucks Buses Highways Electric Hybrid Self-driving
Bicycles Cars Cars vehicles
RAIL
Steam Subways Tramways High speed Maglev
Locomotives Jet engine rail
AIR
Balloons Airships Helicopters Jet planes Drones
Planes Wide body jets / supersonic jets
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
53
PHILIPPINE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
In the early part of 1900, Transportation in this Country depended largely on:
RAILROADS WATERWAYS EARTH ROADS
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
54
Common Modes of Transportation in the Philippines
JEEPNEY MULTICAB BUS TAXI
VANS FOR HIRE BICYCLE WITH SIDECAR MOTORCYCLE WITH MOTORCYCLE TAXI
(PEDICAB) PASSENGER COMPARTMENT (HABAL-HABAL)
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
55
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL RAILWAYS METRO RAIL TRANSIT LINE 3

(PNR) (MRT-3)
METRO RAIL TRANSIT LINE 7 LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT LINE 1 LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT LINE 2
(MRT-7) (LRT-1) (LRT-2) RAILWAYS (NCR) RAILWAYS (NATIONWIDE)
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
56
FERRY BOAT (RO-RO) PUMPBOAT (BANCA)
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
57
AIRPLANE HELICOPTER
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
58
DEVELOPING A TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
Comparative Advantages of Transportation Modes
The transportation system that evolves in a developed nation may not be as economically e cient as
one that is developed in a more analytical fashion, but it is one in which each of the modes provides
unique advantages for transporting the nation’s freight and passengers.
• A business trip across the country may involve travel by taxi, airplane or rail, and auto.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
59
ffi
• Transportation of freight often requires trucks for pick-up and delivery and railroads, barges, or
motor carriers for long-distance hauling.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
60
Each mode has inherent advantages of cost, travel time, convenience, and exibility that make it
“right for the job” under a certain set of circumstances.
• The automobile is considered to be a reliable, comfortable, exible, and ubiquitous form of

personal transportation for many people.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
61
fl
fl
• However, when distances are great and time is at a premium, air transportation will be selected—
supplemented by the auto for local travel.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
62
• If cost is important and time is not at a premium or if an auto is not available, then intercity bus or
rail may be used.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
63
Selecting a mode to haul freight follows a similar approach.
• Trucks have the advantages of exibility and the ability to provide door-to-door service. They can
carry a variety of parcel sizes and usually can pick up and deliver to meet the customer’s schedule.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
64
fl
• Waterways can ship heavy commodities at low cost, but only at slow speeds and between points
on a river or canal.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
65
• Railroads can haul a wide variety of commodities between any two points, but usually require truck
transportation to deliver the goods to a freight terminal or to their nal destination.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
66
fi
Many industries have been trying to reduce their parts

and supplies inventories, preferring to transport them
from the factory when needed rather than stockpiling
them in a warehouse. This practice has meant shifting
transportation modes from rail to truck. Rail shipments
are usually made once or twice a week in carload lots,
whereas truck deliveries can be made in smaller
amounts and on a daily basis, depending on demand.
In this instance, lower rail-freight rates do not
compete with truck exibility, since the overall result
of selecting trucking is a cost reduction for the
industry. There is a trend toward inter-modalism,
which has combined the capabilities of both modes.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
67
fl
Example: Selecting a Transportation Mode. An individual is planning to take a trip between the
downtown area of two cities, A and B, which are 650 km apart. There are three options available:
• Travel by Air. This trip will involve driving to the airport near city A, parking, waiting at the
terminal, ying to airport B, walking to a taxi stand, and taking a taxi to the nal destination.
Flying
START FINAL
DESTINATION
Driving Airport Airport Taxi
(City “A”) (City “B”)
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
68
fl
fi
• Travel by Auto. This trip will involve driving 650 km through several congested areas, parking in
the downtown area, and walking to the nal destination.
START FINAL
DESTINATION
Auto
Downtown Walking
(From City “A)
(City “B”)
• Travel by Rail. This trip will involve taking a cab to the railroad station in city A, a direct rail
connection to the downtown area in city B, and a short walk to the nal destination.
START FINAL
DESTINATION
Taxi
Railroad (Going to City “B”)
(From City “A) Walking
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
69
fi
fi
Since this is a business trip, the person making the trip is willing to pay up to $25 for each hour of
travel time reduced by a competing mode. (For example, if one mode is two hours faster than
another, the traveler is willing to pay $50 more to use the faster mode.) After examining all direct
costs involved in making the trip by air, auto, or rail (including parking, fuel, fares, tips, and taxi
charges) the traveler concludes that the trip by air will cost $250 with a total travel time of ve hours,
the trip by auto will cost $200 with a total travel time of eight hours and the trip by rail will cost $150
with a total travel time of 12 hours.
Which mode is selected based on travel time and cost factors alone?
What other factors might be considered by the traveler in making a nal selection?
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
70
fi
fi
SOLUTION:
Since travel time is valued at $25/hr, the following costs would be incurred:
Air: $250 +$25/hr(5hrs) = $375

Auto: $200 +$25/hr(8hrs) = $400
Rail: $150 +$25/hr(12hrs) = $450
In this instance, the air alternate re ects the lowest cost and is the selected mode.
However, the traveler may have other reasons to select another alternative. These may include the
following considerations.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
71
fl
SOLUTION:
Safety. While each of these modes is safe, the traveler may feel “safer” in one mode than another.
For example, rail may be preferred because of concerns regarding air safety issues.
Reliability. If it is very important to attend the meeting, the traveler may select the mode that will
provide the highest probability of an on-time arrival. If the drive involves travel through work zones
and heavily congested areas, rail or air would be preferred. If potential air delays are likely due to
congestion, ight cancellations, or inclement weather, another mode may be preferred.
Convenience. The number of departures and arrivals provided by each mode could be a factor. For
example, if the railroad provides only two trains/day and the airline has six ights/day, the traveler
may prefer to go by air.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
72
fl
fl
Interaction of Supply and Demand
The transportation system that exists at any point in time is the product of two factors that act on
each other. These are:
(1) The state of the economy, which produces the demand for transportation;
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
73
(2) The extent and quality of the system that is currently in place, which constitutes the supply
of transportation facilities and services.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
74
In periods of high unemployment or rising fuel costs, the demand for transportation tends to
decrease. On the other hand, if a new transportation mode is introduced that is signi cantly less
costly when compared with existing modes, the demand for the new mode will increase, decreasing
demand for the existing modes.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
75
fi
These ideas can be illustrated in graphic terms by considering two curves,
• one describing the demand for transportation at a particular point in time, and
• the other describing how the available transportation service or supply is a ected by the volume
of tra c that uses that system.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
76
ffi
ff
The curve in Figure 2.1 shows how demand in terms of tra c

volume could vary with cost. The curve is representative of a
given state of the economy and of the present population. As
is evident, if the transportation cost per km, C, decreases,
then, since more people will use it at a lower cost, the
volume, V, will increase. In Figure 2.1, when the tra c
volume/day is 6000, the cost is $0.75/km. If cost is decreased
to $0.50/km, the volume/day increases to 8000. In other
words, this curve provides an estimate of the demand for
transportation under a given set of economic and social
conditions.
Figure 2.1 - Relationship between Transportation
Demand and Cost
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
77
ffi
ffi
Demand can occur only if transportation services are available

between the desired points. Consider a situation where the demand
shown in Figure 2.1 represents the desire to travel between the
mainland of Florida and an inaccessible island that is located o the
coast, as shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Location of a New Bridge between

the Mainland and an Island
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
78
ff
The curve in Figure 2.3 illustrates how the cost of using the
bridge could increase as the volume of tra c increases,
assuming that the toll is $0.25/km. In this gure, if the volume
is less than 2000 units/day, there is no delay due to tra c
congestion.
However, as tra c volumes increase beyond 2000 units/day,

delays occur and the travel time increases. Since “time is
money,” the increased time has been converted to $/km. If
4000 units/day use the bridge, the cost is $0.50 km; at 6000
units/day, the cost is $0.75/km.
Figure 2.3
Relationship between Transportation Supply and Cost
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
79
ffi
fi
ffi
ffi
The two curves (Figures 2.1 and 2.3) determine what volume
(V) can be expected to use the bridge. This value will be
found where the demand curve intersects the supply curve
as shown in Figure 2.4, because any other value of V will
create a shift in demand either upward or downward, until the
equilibrium point is reached. If the volume increased beyond
the equilibrium point, cost would go up and demand would
drop. Likewise, if the volume dropped below equilibrium, cost
would go down and demand would increase. Thus, in both
instances equilibrium is achieved. In this example, the
number of units crossing the bridge would be 6000 units/day.
The tra c volume could be raised or lowered by changing Figure 2.4
the toll—an example of congestion pricing. Equilibrium Volume for Traf c Crossing a Bridge
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
80
ffi
fi
Forces That Changes the Transportation System
If Gasoline Prices were to increase signi cantly, there could be a measurable shift of long-haul
freight from truck to rail. In the long run, if petroleum prices remained high, there might be shifts to
coal or electricity or to more fuel-e cient trucks and autos.
Government actions also in uence transportation equilibrium. For example, the federal
government’s decision to build the national interstate system a ected the truckrail balance in favor of
truck transportation. It also encouraged long-distance travel by auto and was a factor in the decline
of intercity bus service to small communities.
Technology has also contributed to substantial shifts in transportation equilibrium. A dramatic

example was the introduction of jet aircraft, which essentially eliminated passenger train travel in the
United States and passenger steamship travel between the United States and the rest of the world.
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
81
fl
ffi
fi
ff
END OF PRESENTATION
CHAPTER O2
INSTRUCTOR
82

Ce412 - Chapter 02 - Transportation As A System

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ce412 - Chapter 02 - Transportation As A System

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 02

First form of Transport

• Egyptians built some of the earliest boats ever

• The rst ones were made from papyrus reeds

• Mainly used for trade.

• One of the greatest technical and artistic

Wheeled carts were pulled for transportation of goods.

Animals were trained to pull carts

Horse driven wagons, coaches and carriages as superior modes of transportation

In about 1490 Leonardo da Vinci drew plants for a ying machine.

In 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built a three-wheeled steam-driven vehicle.

Facilitated ow of goods, unprecedented exchanges between regions, specialization of labor, and

The world’s rst Monorail was drawn by a horse.

First fully controllable Glider by Wright brothers in 1902.

JEEPNEY MULTICAB BUS TAXI

PHILIPPINE NATIONAL RAILWAYS METRO RAIL TRANSIT LINE 3

FERRY BOAT (RO-RO) PUMPBOAT (BANCA)

• The automobile is considered to be a reliable, comfortable, exible, and ubiquitous form of

Selecting a mode to haul freight follows a similar approach.

Many industries have been trying to reduce their parts

Air: $250 +$25/hr(5hrs) = $375

These ideas can be illustrated in graphic terms by considering two curves,

The curve in Figure 2.1 shows how demand in terms of tra c

Demand can occur only if transportation services are available

Figure 2.2 Location of a New Bridge between

However, as tra c volumes increase beyond 2000 units/day,

Technology has also contributed to substantial shifts in transportation equilibrium. A dramatic

You might also like