SYMPOSIUM: CYTOGENETICS AND CELL BIOLOGY
Interrelationships Between Recent Developments in Molecular
Genetics and Cytogenetics and
Animal Breeding 1
ABSTRACT
Animal breeding traditionally has
entailed devising means to apply quanti-
tative and population genetic theory
to increase productive capacity of live-
stock. A highly developed and successful
industry has been built on foundations
established by academic animal breeders.
Recent developments in related sciences
such as reproductive biology, molecular
biology, cellular biology, and cyto-
genetics offer prospects for the emer-
gence of a number of methodologies that
might usefully be applied to animal
breeding. Scientists engaged in develop-
ment of the newer technologies are not
wholly familiar with the livestock in-
dustry, its breeding structure, its ob-
jectives, its institutions or its peculiarities.
Animal breeders, however, are not fully
cognizant of the scientific advances being
made in related fields, their potential for
development and application or their
limitations, and therefore, animal breeders
have not seriously thought about how
they might be integrated most usefully
and efficaciously into the animal breeding
enterprise. A collaboration is needed in
which the laboratory scientists produce
new ideas, products, and methods and the
animal breeders-using system analysis,
simulation procedures, and laboratory
animal and livestock breeding tests-help
make rational choices, partially direct
work of the laboratory scientists, help the
industry integrate new methods, and
monitor the extent of success of adapted
innovations.
Received August 9, 1985.
1Salaries and research support provided by State
and Federal Funds appropriated to The Ohio Agricul-
tural Research and Development Center, The Ohio
State University. Journal Article Number 152-85.
1986 J Dairy Sci 69:1743--1751
N. S. FECHHEIMER
Department of Dairy Science
2027 Coffey Road
The Ohio State University
Columbus 43210
INTRODUCTION
Successful animal breeding schemes are
based upon two primary components, one
academic and one commercial. The appropriate
function of the academic component is explor-
ation of new ground, development of novel
ideas and methodologies that enable new
questions to be asked, and building a store-
house of pertinent knowledge. The commercial
component adapts appropriate segments of the
new knowledge to build a business to accumu-
late and sell improved germ plasm, in various
forms, to animal producers. There occurs very
little duplication of effort between the two.
Academic animal breeders have concentrated
largely on research and monitoring the opera-
tion of the industry whereas the commercial
enterprises have dealt with development and
sales.
This paper relates largely to academic animal
breeding, its present state, and its prospects. It
reviews briefly the approaches that have been
used, their accomplishments, and their con-
sequences. The rapid growth of knowledge in
related fields, viz. reproductive, molecular, and
cell biology and cytogenetics are noted. Means
for their integration into academic animal
breeding are explored. Particular emphasis is
given to speculation about modification of
approaches taken to the general objective of
genetic improvement of animals. Questions are
raised as to how developments in the more
recently developed fields might best be inte-
grated into animal breeding research programs,
how the objectives for animal breeding might
be altered, and how the enterprise might be
organized to enable the most effective use of
the limited resources available to departments
of animal science.
C U R R E N T STATE OF
A N I M A L BREEDING
The theoretical bases of present day animal
breeding were elaborated by Jay Lush and his
1743
1744 FECHHEIMER
students 30 to 40 Yr ago and comprise in-
genious applications from the work on quanti-
tative and population genetics of Fisher,
Wright, and Haldane. The primary aims are to
increase the selection differential and the
correlation between the phenotypic evaluations
of animals and their true breeding values.
Reduction in generation interval enables a
greater number of genetic alterations of a
population per unit of time. Although the
theory has remained intact, its application has
undergone periodic changes that were enabled
by developments in statistics and by technical
innovations. Those advances of greatest benefit
were the modern computer, which vastly
increased the capability to do large-scale,
complex computations, and developments in
reproductive biology, which enabled exploita-
tion of artificial insemination and some asso-
ciated technologies. These and other lesser
developments provided the knowledge for
establishment of successful animal breeding
industries, which now provide the germ plasm,
especially for producers of dairy and poultry
products.
Commercial enterprises have served producers
very well. In North America the artificial
insemination organizations have provided for
genetic improvement in milk yield of about
l%/yr (29). Genetic improvement of broiler
chickens is even faster. Even in the pig and beef
cattle industries, where breeding is not domi-
nated by large breeding companies, application
of sound recommendations by academic animal
breeders has enabled influential practicing
breeders to make reasonably rapid progress in
characters such as growth rate, efficiency of
gain, and carcass composition (7). There can be
no doubt that application of animal breeding
theory yields a predictable, satisfactory rate of
improvement.
The consequences of the proved effectiveness
of animal breeding practice are both beneficial
and detrimental. Large commercial establish-
ments, operated by capable, well-trained
specialists are serving the industry well. The
breeding industry itself supports, to a small
extent, some research, which for the most part
is directed toward solution of short-term
problems of the industry. Universities, experi-
ment stations, and the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture (USDA) are diverting some
of the resources once allocated to animal
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 69, No. 6, 1986
breeding research to other programs that are
judged to have greater potential to increase the
knowledge necessary for even more rapid
changes in the genetic complements of livestock
populations.
Traditionally trained academic animal breed-
ers have made valuable contributions to quan-
titative, population, and developmental genetics.
Much of their effort is devoted to serving as
consultants to the industry. The very great
analytical skills that they possess are being
employed to monitor and evaluate the system,
to deal with periodic difficulties that arise in
the system, and to devise schemes to effect
slight alterations in the efficiency of the system.
They quantify, using esoteric statistical proce-
dures, what is already generally known; analyze
skillfully large volumes of performance test
data; and train proficient, statistically oriented
students. It would be beneficial if academic
animal breeders became increasingly cognizant
of the rapid developments in modern biology
with a view to incorporate segments of such
knowledge into the animal breeding enterprise.
A brief survey of some of those developments
of greatest promise is made in the following
section.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITH
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS TO
ANIMAL BREEDING
Manipulation of the Reproductive
Process, Gametes, and Zygotes
The technology of artificial insemination has
become the primary method for breeding dairy
cattle because it offered such great opportunity
for applying sound genetic principles (12). Its
proper application, commencing in the early
1960's, enabled selection differentials of bulls
to be vastly increased and enabled accurate
estimates of breeding values of males for traits
expressed only by cows. Universal adoption by
the industry of a plan devised by academic
animal breeders was the basis for an econ-
omically feasible, practical, and successful
scheme for continued genetic improvement of
dairy cattle.
But a number of more recently developed or
still developing techniques for altering repro-
duction of livestock have, thus far, received
scant attention by animal breeders. Embryo
transfer is being extensively practised in both
 SYMPOSIUM: CYTOGENETICS AND CELL BIOLOGY
beef and dairy cattle industries (23). Coupled
with superovulation, embryo transfer offers to
animal breeders a number of opportunities to
enhance the rate of progress in breeding pro-
grams. Genetically superior females can supply
ova for a much larger proportion of replace-
ments; monotocous animals could be progeny
tested to increase the accuracy of estimating
their breeding values; the generation interval
could be reduced by inducing multiple ovula-
tion of young females and transferring the
resulting embryos to mature cows; productivity
of beef cows might be increased by supplying
each cow with a second embryo, a fair propor-
tion of which would survive gestation (24).
Animals bearing identical genotypes, the
equivalent of naturally occurring monozygotic
twins, are being produced commerically by
splitting early embryos (3). Work is under way
to extend the capability, so that greater num-
bers of identical animals might be produced
(30). It is even possible that some cell type of
mature animals possesses totipotency so that
their genotype might be reproduced, yielding
large numbers of young exactly the same as
that of the mature animal.
The genomic content of ova can now be
altered by micromanipulation equipment that
enables nuclei or pronuclei to be withdrawn or
inserted into ova (15). These techniques produce
polyploid embryos, embryos containing two
haploid genomes from the same parent, or
embryos resulting from parents of different
taxa, i.e., wide crosses. Presently these tech-
niques are being used for study of embryological
phenomena, but they also have potentially
useful application in animal breeding to which
little thought has been given.
Micromanipulation techniques are also being
used to produce chimeric embryos either by
fusing two embyos to produce an aggregation
chimera or by injecting one or more totipotent
cells into the inner ceil mass of a blastocyst
(19). The injected cells might be from another
embryo or from a cell line derived from a
teratocarcinoma maintained in cell culture in
the laboratory. Frequently the introduced cells
become incorporated fully into all tissues of the
developing chimeric embryo including the germ
line. Capabilities made available by use of these
methods include that of introducing the geno-
type of cells maintained and modified in the
laboratory into a breeding population. Other
1745
uses of the capability for producing chimeras
have been discussed elsewhere (16).
A further use of micromanipulation is for
genetic transformation by injection of deoxy-
ribonucleic acid (DNA) coding for a known
gene into a pronucleus of a fertilized ovum. The
injected DNA sometimes integrates into one or
more chromosomes of the pronucleus and
becomes a part of the genome of the embryo
(18). When such embryos are brought to term,
reared, and used as breeding animals, some
transmit their new gene to half their progeny,
indicating that the new gene was fully inte-
grated into a chromosome of the one-cell
embryo. This technique enables the transfer
of any gene from any source, no matter how
remote the relationship between donor and
recipient, into a population of animals. It offers
great promise as a means to modify function of
animals for any characteristic or trait that is
conditioned to some extent by single genes
with major effects.
Genetic Analyses
During the past 15 yr, startling advances
have been made in molecular biology that have
led to rapid accumulation of knowledge of the
genetic complements of higher organisms
including man and mouse. The methodology
has yielded surprising new insights into the
structure and organization of the mammalian
genome, its functioning, and its control. Per-
tinent aspects of the techniques of molecular
gentics and their applications were reviewed by
Frankham and Gillings (13). Any gene whose
products are known, either messenger ribo-
nucleic acid or protein, can be mapped, isolated,
or attached to an appropriate vector for intro-
duction into bacteria or other cells. Following
its amplification in bacteria, multiple copies can
be recovered and analyzed in detail. The
capability is available to reveal the entire
sequence of bases of which individual genes are
comprised.
Elements involved in the control of gene
function are being identified and manipulated.
The DNA segment that controls the gene for
heavy metal metabolism in mice, the metala-
thionein gene, was attached to the growth
hormone gene of rats and the entire contruct
transferred, by injection into pronuctei of
fertilized eggs, into mouse embryos. During the
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 69, No. 6, 1986
1746 FECHHEIMER
postweaning growth period of resulting mice,
addition of zinc to the diet induced high
growth hormone production from the liver and
other tissues (18). This experiment illustrates
the potential to influence productive function
of animals by altering the copy number of key
genes and using imaginative ways to control
their activity in particular organs or tissues at
specific times in development.
Other lines of work have indicated that
genes affecting a single animal function in some
cases are clustered into short lengths of a
chromosome and are n o t randomly located in
the genome (6). Further, when intense selection
for resistance to a cytotoxic agent is applied to
cell cultures, the positive response has been
mediated by localized amplification of a single
gene rather than change in frequency of rele-
vant genes at many loci (22). This type of study
illustrates the importance of understanding the
organization of the genome of animals and
suggests possible ways in which useful functions
of animal might be enhanced.
Recognition of the occurrence of base pair
substitutions at fairly high frequencies in the
DNA of animals, including man, was accom-
plished by analysis of DNA fragments produced
by various restriction enzymes. Application of
the technique to the study of DNA of man has
revealed a number of restriction fragment
length polymorphisms. The variant sites exert
no gross phenotypic effects but can be used as
markers to map the entire genome (25). Such
silent markers, it is proposed, could then be
used to indicate the presence or absence of
other genes or gene clusters to which they
could be shown to be closely linked.
Cells in culture can be transformed, i.e., new
genes can be introduced into them, by a number
of techniques including direct DNA transfer,
chromosome-mediated transfer, and viral vec-
tors (26). Cell lines can be transformed serially
or otherwise altered genetically to contain a
new, engineered genotype. If the engineering is
done in a culture, the cells of which have
maintained a totipotency, they can subse-
quently be introduced into a breeding popula-
tion by construction of injection chimeras (27).
This brief discussion of a few of the areas in
molecular genetics presently under study is
perhaps sufficient to indicate that techniques
and methods of great potential value to the
animal breeding enterprise are developing at a
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 69, No. 6, 1986
rapid rate and warrant serious thought, con-
sideration, and plans for experimental use.
Cell Biology and
Cytogenetics
Advances in methods to establish and
maintain mammalian cell lines in culture and to
elicit from them knowledge of their genetic
complements have been widely exploited to
map a number of human genes. Techniques of
cell genetics enable the localization and study
of any gene that can be made to function in
cultured cells. Thus, the task of gene mapping
can proceed rapidly without employing crosses
of classical genetics and observation of variant
phenotypes in embryos or living animals (21).
Cells in culture will tolerate relatively
extreme alterations of their genome such as
chromosome segment duplications, deletions,
aneuploidy, and polyploidy. Lines containing
such aberrations are used to establish the
location of genes on specific chromosomes by
deletion and duplication mapping. They are
also used to study gene activity in cells bearing
more or fewer than two alleles at a locus. It is a
relatively easy matter to produce, isolate, and
propagate cell lines bearing aberrant chromo-
some complements for a variety of purposes.
Such cell lines can be studied intensely in
culture and even introduced as component
clones of chimeric embryos. In this way the
effect of a wide array of genome alterations on
developing embryos can be observed. This is
because when present as only one component
in a chimera, chromosomal alterations that in
pure form are lethal, exhibit attenuated effects
(8).
The value of cytogenetics to the animal
breeding enterprise has been well-established
(11). Standard and banded karyotypes of all
domesticated food producing animals have been
prepared. From these much has been learned of
the structure and organization of the chromo-
somes. The importance of chromosomal aber-
rations as a cause of embryonic mortality,
stillbirth, gross abnormality, and infertility and
sterility of adult animals has been well-estab-
lished in man and mouse. Demonstration of the
applicability of much of this knowledge to
food-producing animals has accrued slowly but
is now well under way. Polymorphisms o f
chromosome structure and banding pattern
are ubiquitous, but little is known of the
 SYMPOSIUM: CYTOGENETICS AND CELL BIOLOGY
phenotypic manifestations of these variants.
Lines of chickens and pigs bearing structural
rearrangments of chromosome segments have
been recovered from populations or produced
experimentally. Many such lines with marker
chromosomes are maintained and used to map
genes, to establish the parental origin of aber-
rant gametes, or to produce embryos bearing
deletions and duplications of known segments.
Cytogeneticists have also contributed use-
fully in collaborative work to map genes by in
situ hybridization, to characterize the genome
of cell lines, to gain a further understanding of
the mechanisms of sex determination in man
and animals, and to diagnose the occurrence of
afflictions caused by chromosome abnormali-
ties. Attempts to study the etiology of chromo-
some abnormalities have led to standard pro-
cedures for detection of exposure of animals to
toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic agents,
many of which produce chromosome lesions
detectable with cytogenic methods (4).
PRESENT STATE OF AFFAIRS
From the brief foregoing summary of devel-
opments in fields allied to animal breeding it is
clear that many powerful new tools to alter the
genetic complement of livestock are becoming
available for exploration, further refinement,
and selective application. But molecular biology
has changed not only the means for obtaining
knowledge about the genetic endowment of
animals but also the nature of the knowledge
one can seek. It was once thought that study of
individual genes and their effects on productive
traits of livestock would be useless because it
was impossible using traditional methods to
give attention to more than a small fraction of
the vast array of genes that influenced perform-
ance of animals for any economically important
trait. Further, if genes with major effects were
detected it required a long and tedious process
to transfer them into the populations where
they were desired. The situation is now sub-
stantially altered, because large numbers of
genes can be mapped and isolated from any
species. More than 600 human genes have been
mapped, and the pace is accelerating so that
almost 150/yr are now being isolated (14).
Once useful genes are located, new technologies
permit their transfer relatively quickly.
Recognition of the potential use of new
technology to supplement traditional animal
1747
breeding methods has been slow. Now, however,
many departments of animal science are adding
biotechnologists to their faculties, the USDA
apportioned a sizeable amount of money for
grants for work in the area, and many spec-
ulative articles are appearing in popular press.
In spite the emerging awareness of need for
change, little serious thought has been given to
how the whole array of new methodologies
should be selectively studied, developed, and
ultimately exploited by the animal breeding
enterprise. With some notable exceptions (17,
9, 20, 28), animal breeders have hardly begun
to think about the implications of what is at
hand. Molecular and cellular biologists are
trained in fields other than the animal sciences,
and their primary interests are toward pursuit
of detailed knowledge for its own sake. Cyto-
geneticists, in the absence of a plan for applica-
tion of their talents in an integrated scheme for
improvement of animal productivity, have
adhered to their own, somewhat independent
agenda (11). Academic animal breeders are
bewildered by the flurry of activity in areas
they do not understand but which they are told
relate to animal breeding. They have seen their
role as one of continuing their traditional and
familiar activities. It is well that they do,
because in spite of great expectations for
application of the newer technologies to animal
breeding, such applications are not imminent.
Meanwhile, the industry must continue to
function.
NEED FOR AND EMERGING
NATURE OF COLLABORATIONS
Traditionally trained animal geneticists and
molecular and cellular biologists differ in their
base of knowledge, skills, manner of approach
to problems, and in their understanding of the
structure and operations of the livestock
breeding industry. They will, however, have a
common goal, the genetic improvement of
populations of animals. The presence of all
three types of scientists in departments of
animal science, with good will and appropriate
leadership, should lead to useful collaborations
which could well enhance the productivity of
all.
When they are first brought into depart-
ments of animal science, molecular biologists
are under great pressure to apply their skills to
spectacular, but in overall context irrelevant,
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 69, No. 6, 1986
1748 FECHHEIMER
experiments such as production of giant mice
or pigs. In the long run their much more useful
role will be in accumulating knowledge of the
genes involved intimately in influencing pro-
ductivity of livestock and in gaining an under-
standing of how such genes act and interact; in
learning how many genes affect particular
functions, where they are located, how they
act, what controls their activity, and what the
interrelationships are among them. While
engaged in this process, molecular biologists
will also learn a great deal about organization of
the genome, and its meaning and importance to
the question of how genetic changes can
be made. Gene duplication and amplification,
directed recombination, nonrandom transmis-
sion of alleles, site-specific mutation, and other
phenomena all warrant intense study as poten-
tial tools for animal breeders. As this information
accumulates it has important bearing on quanti-
tative and population genetic theory, requiring
modification of models and methods of animal
breeding. The activities of the molecular and
cellular geneticists will yield clones of genes and
other products as well as a host of ideas, many
of which will deserve full-scale testing first in
laboratory animals and the most propitious in
livestock. Such experimental work is best
designed, conducted, and analyzed by animal
scientists.
Biology of Reproduction
and Animal Breeding
With the emergence of new techniques for
modulating the reproductive functions of
animals, manipulating their genomes, and
altering their genotypes, modified strategies and
structures for animal breeding will need to be
explored. The explorations will first be theore-
tical; some will warrant further work involving
complex simulations with computers. Ulti-
mately, new structures of animal breeding will
need to be designed and institutions built to
accommodate them. The traditional animal
breeding structure gave way to an entirely new
one with the development of artificial insemina-
tion. When frozen semen became generally
available, the structure of the artificial insemin-
ation industry was greatly changed. Even this
industry has not been found to be the appro-
priate one, unless vast changes can be made
rather rapidly, for the widespread rational use
of embryo transfer. Just as animal breeders
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 69, No. 6, 1986
played an important role in designing the
structures for these industries, their knowledge
will be required to help find the optimum
strategies and mechanisms for applications of
newer technologies.
Cytogenetics and Animal
Breeding
Animal cytogenetics has developed rapidly
during the past 20 yr and will now make
important contributions to both the theory and
practice of animal breeding (10, 11). Collabora-
tions similar to those between molecular
biologists and animal breeders are needed
between each of these two groups and cyto-
geneticists if the capabilities of the latter
group are to be incorporated into schemes for
animal improvement.
Among the more important potential roles
of cytogeneticists is the capability, using
marker chromosomes that can be specially
produced or recovered from among spon-
taneously occurring ones, to make experimental
tests of some basic assumptions upon which
theory of animal breeding rests. They are
capable of detecting, for instance, deviations
from the expectation that c h r o m o s o m e s
segregate randomly at meiosis or that sperma-
tozoa bearing different haploid genetic contents
are equally able to effect fertilization and
support early embryonic development.
Cytogenetic methodology is being applied to
provide partial answers to other fundamental
questions confronting animal breeders. They
can help detect the mechanisms responsible for
the reduced reproductive performance that
frequently accompanies intense selection for
other production traits (31). They can contri-
bute to an understanding of the decline in
fitness of inbred lines, particularly if such
decline is a consequence of mutants affecting
the normal course of mitosis and meiosis (2).
Ultimately cytogenetic techniques can provide
new sources of genetic variation for subsequent
exploitation by animal breeders. Already
triploid (1) and trisomic (5) chickens are
available for study. Tetraploidy-especially
aIlotetraploidy, which offers promise of provid-
ing entirely new forms of useful animals-is
worthy of intense investigation. So, too, is the
further possibility of producing animals bearing
a number of duplications, deletions, or other-
wise altered genomes.
 SYMPOSIUM: CYTOGENETICS AND CELL BIOLOGY
In conjuction with molecular and cellular
geneticists, the capabilities of the cytogeneticist
are required to assist with the mammoth task of
locating and mapping important genes and gene
clusters in livestock. Already a number of
laboratories are engaged in such work using
hybrid cell lines, in situ hybridation, and other
techniques. This work will require the diligent
and sustained attention of a number of labora-
tories.
A SUGGESTED AGENDA FOR
DEPARTMENTS OF ANIMAL SCIENCE
Recent and continuing developments in
molecular, cellular, and developmental biology
vastly increase the potential for breeding
domestic animals for greater productivity. It is
too early to know how the new knowledge will
be applied and in what order various potential
new technologies will be exploited. But it is not
too early for all of those engaged in animal
breeding and genetics to commence preparing
for fundamental changes in the nature of the
enterprise. The most important step to be taken
by departments of animal science that wish to
be engaged at the forefront of animal breeding
research is to increase their capability to do
fundamental work in molecular and cellular
genetics, reproductive biology, and other areas
exhibiting promise of useful development. No
single department can afford to develop pro-
ductive laboratories in all of such fields, but
none can afford not to put a relatively high
proportion of their resources into establishment
of one or more of them.
Faculty members in charge of the new
laboratories, whether they be new young
scientists trained outside of agriculture or
established animal scientists with knowledge
and skills to initiate a new research program,
should be given special encouragement and
direction. They should be expected to initiate
and maintain a program of fundamental re-
search that contributes important knowledge
about genetic endowment of animals or its
organization, control, or functioning. It would
be well if a number of such laboratories con-
centrated upon functions of production or
reproduction, but it is counterproductive to
exert undue influence on the direction of work
of individual scientists i n the academic com-
munity. It is essential, however, that they have
the inclination and ability to convey develop-
1749
ments in their own and related fields to de-
partmental colleagues so that the outlook and
understanding of newer developments of the
entire department is expanded. A portion of
their time should be diverted from their own
basic research to collaborative efforts with
animal scientists. Perhaps this activity would be
most useful it if were devoted to helping with
the training of graduate students, who are
under primary supervision of more traditionally
trained scientists.
What is visualized is that through constant
contacts and interactions, molecular and
cellular scientists would become familiar with
the larger concerns of the animal breeding and
production enterprise, and, equally important,
that animal scientists would become increas-
ingly cognizant of the techniques and the
knowledge of molecular and cellular biology so
that they could integrate them into their own
plans and activities and have at least a general
appreciation of the power of adapting appro-
priate aspects of the new biology.
During an interim period, animal breeders
and laboratory scientists will learn of each
other's domains and build a mutual under-
standing of each others capabilities, limitations,
and needs. Animal breeders will need to con-
tinue to see to the continued growth of the
industry, to monitor its progress, and to devise
tools for its improvement. But they should give
increasing attention to growth of the pool of
knowledge and technology being produced by
the laboratory scientists so that they can plan
for integration of appropriate segments in a
timely and rational manner. They should
also, from their vantage point, provide a greater
perspective of the industry and explore and
think about what developments would benefit
the industry most. There are vast amounts of
work to be done and there will be too few
scientists to make advances on all fronts. The
choice of specific objectives could be usefully
infuenced, therefore, by suggestions from
animal breeders.
Departments of animal science cannot
expect to be given vast new resources with
which to embark on new ventures. For the
most part they will be required to realign a
rather static number of faculty positions to do
so. To develop and exploit the new method-
ologies it will be necessary to curtail or eliminate
a number of traditional attitudes and activities
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 69, No. 6, 1986
1750 FECHHEIMER
and concentrate on doing those things that
u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t m e n t s are u n i q u e l y p o s i t i o n e d
to do. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e is seeking
n e w k n o w l e d g e a n d t r a i n i n g o f scientists.
Development and industrial applications should
be b y i n d u s t r y i t s e l f so t h a t u n i v e r s i t y scientists
have m o r e t i m e for t h e i r p r i m a r y tasks. T h e
resources o f a c a d e m e are t o o scarce t o b e
s q u a n d e r e d in p u r s u i t o f s h o r t - r a n g e objectives.
A n i m a l b r e e d i n g a n d genetics are u n d e r g o i n g
a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a m a t u r e , relatively stable
science i n t o a n activity w i t h vast o p p o r t u n i t y
to adopt a number of powerful new method-
ologies t o its m i s s i o n of devising m e t h o d s f o r
d i r e c t i n g g e n e t i c c h a n g e s of d o m e s t i c animals.
T h e t r a n s i t i o n r e q u i r e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f scien-
tists, each o f w h o m is w o r k i n g at t h e f o r e f r o n t
o f h i s / h e r o w n science a n d is eager to d e v o t e a
p o r t i o n of h i s / h e r e f f o r t t o t h e larger c o o p e r a -
tive v e n t u r e . It is a v e n t u r e a t t r a c t i v e e n o u g h to
e n t i c e t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d m o s t able g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t s a n d y o u n g scientists. F o r t h o s e w h o
will be d i r e c t i n g t h e t r a i n i n g o f t h e s e p e o p l e it
is i m p o r t a n t t o assure t h a t t h e y are p r e p a r e d
for intellectual growth and continued produc-
tivity over a career t h a t will r e q u i r e m a n y
adjustments and adaptations and assimilations
of n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s in a rapidly m o v i n g field.
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