Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Future Foods
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fufo

Recent development, challenges, and prospects of extrusion technology

Krishna Prabha a, Payel Ghosh a, Abdullah S b, Rosmin M Joseph a, Reshma Krishnan c,
Sandeep Singh Rana a, Rama Chandra Pradhan b,∗
a
Department of Food Technology, Vignan’s Foundation of Science Technology and Research, Vadlamudi, Andhra Pradesh 522213, India
b
Food Process Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
c
Department of Food Technology, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar - Delhi G.T. Road, Phagwara, Punjab 144411, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: There is a significant advancement in the modification of extruders for the commercial application in food pro-
Supercritical fluid extrusion cessing sector, especially during the last three decades. Extrusion is one among the most commercially successful
3-D printing technology, escalating its demand in the diverse field of the food industry, including food processing, digital
Improved extrusion cooking technology
food marketing (3-D printed food) and food packaging. The paper aims to review the developments in the last
Meat analogues
5 years. The novel innovations include hot-melt extrusion, supercritical fluid assisted extrusion and extrusion-
Biodegradable polymers
based 3-D printing. Hot-melt extrusion finds application in developing food with taste-masking properties of
functional components and with high repeatability andy targeted delivery with widespread application in meat
replacements, cheese, cocoa etc. The supercritical fluids assisted extrusion is used to develop products rich in
nutrients that are heat sensitive. Extrusion based 3-D printing is the latest trend focusing on digitalizing commer-
cial food market with nutritionally personalized and geometrically complex food products. The review also gives
lights to the application of extrusion in the food packaging sector as biodegradable polymers replacing synthetic
petroleum products. It can be inferred that novel technologies in the extrusion have a promising future for the
commercialization of both product and technology.

1. Introduction
The consumers of the present century are exploring new norms of
food consumption driven by the dramatic increase in lifestyle diseases.
The concerns related to food quality and safety resulted in the devel-
opment of new food market with innovative high-value food choices.
Unlike consumers of the previous era, present generation entertains
safe, hygienic, high nutritional, tasty and visually attractive food with
minimum cost. Food industry and researchers are in constant effort
to develop these by utilizing the plant-derived- by-products/wastes
of the food industry, to manufacture value-added foods (Zambrano-
Zaragoza et al., 2019c). By this means, it is possible to develop prod-
ucts that are rich in bioactive substances like antioxidants, antimicro-
bials and poly-phenols, phytochemicals, micronutrients (vitamins and
minerals) from fruit pomace and vegetable peels. The products devel-
oped from spent flours and under-utilized legumes, pseudo-cereals, mil-
lets, whole grains etc., are non-gluten, rich in dietary fiber and with
less glycemic value (Patil and Kaur 2018; Zambrano-Zaragoza et al.,
2019; Leonard et al., 2020). To meet the goal of food processing indus-
tries, extrusion technology can be used to manufacture a wide range of
food products with lower processing cost, continuous production, high
throughputs and better product quality with optimal energy utilization
(Grasso, 2020).
The word ’extrusion’ has its origin from the Latin word ’extrude’
which means ’thrust out’ or ’force out’. Extrusion is a technique in which
a material (either metal or plastic or a group of mixed food ingredients),
is squeezed under high temperature and pressure through a die or an ori-
fice of the desired cross-section. In the food processing sector, this tech-
nology is referred to as food extrusion (Riaz, 2019). Food extrusion is a
process in which a material is forced to flow under different conditions
as a combination of thermal and mechanical treatment through a die
(shaped hole) at a predetermined rate to produce a variety of products
(Alam et al., 2016). Extrusion cooking is defined as a combination of
thermal and mechanical treatment by which protein and/or starch-rich
ingredients, are plasticized and are cooked in a cylinder to obtain a pre-
defined shape. The final product is thus obtained by passing it through
the die opening at the extruder outlet (Harper, 2019; Riaz, 2019). Food
extrusion is a high-temperature short-time method (HTST) which brings
changes in texture, fluid flow and size reduction. It brings changes
by caramelizing, mixing, cooking, heat and mass transfer, plasticizing,
shearing, kneading, shaping and forming (Aktas-Akyildiz et al., 2020;
Yu, 2011) of the final product. Today in the food processing sector, the

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pradhanrc@nitrkl.ac.in (R.C. Pradhan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100019
Received 25 September 2020; Received in revised form 20 January 2021; Accepted 4 February 2021
2666-8335/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
application of this technology is extended to a wide range such as shear-
ing, separation, encapsulation, shaping, mixing, flavor generation, cool-
ing or heating, sterilization, venting moisture and volatiles, conveying
and co-extrusion (Menis-Henrique et al., 2020).
Many equipment modifications and upgradations have taken place
in the field of extrusion for developing food products efficiently and
sustainably with functional properties. Some of these include, extrusion
using supercritical carbon dioxide, for nutrient retention (Lohani and
Muthukumarappan 2017; Paraman et al., 2015) and hot-melt extrusion
for improving solid dispersion stability and bioavailability of food and
drugs (Maniruzzaman et al., 2012; Ottoboni et al., 2017). In hot-melt
extrusion (HME), heat is applied to the material for viscosity control and
to allow smooth flow of the food through the die (Maniruzzaman et al.,
2012; Ottoboni et al., 2017; Chokshi et al. 2004). The advent of robotics
has paved way for the introduction of an innovative technology called 3-
D printing, to develop personalized and customized food products with
complex geometries and structures through layer by layer deposition,
via extrusion by rapid prototyping (Nachal et al., 2019). The extrusion
technology is gaining consumer interest not only in the food segment
but also is used for developing eco-friendly biodegradable packaging
materials using biopolymers.
The present review focuses on the recent advancement applied in
the field of food extrusion technology. The report highlights the ap-
plication of extrusion technology for developing novel food products
that are rich in nutritional, physico-chemical and sensory qualities. The
review focuses on the recent innovations in biopolymer extrusion for
developing biodegradable packaging and also tries to summarize the re-
cent developments and novel techniques involved in the field extrusion
technology.
2. Principle of food extrusion
Extrusion is a process of combination of several unit operations,
whose operating principle is similar in all types. The food ingredients
are subjected to compression, mixing, shearing, kneading and high-
temperature cooking thus converting the ingredients into a molten mate-
rial. These molten materials are then expelled out through a narrow die
to develop semi or fully cooked food with minimum nutritional losses
(Fellows 2009). In the extrusion process, raw ingredients are fed into the
extruder barrel through the feed hopper and the screw then conveys the
food along with it. The volume of the food gets restricted by the smaller
flights inside the barrel and this increases the resistance to movement.
As a result, it fills the barrel and the spaces between the screw flights
and becomes compressed. Further down the barrel, the screw kneads the
material into a semi-solid, plasticized mass. Here, the temperature rises
rapidly due to the frictional and electric heat. The food is then passed
to the section of the barrel where the smallest flights increases the pres-
sure and shearing of the food. Finally, it is forced through one or more
restricted openings (dies) at the discharge end of the barrel as the food
emerges under pressure from the die. The resulting product expands to
the final shape and cools rapidly as the moisture is flashed off as steam.
A variety of shapes including rods, spheres, doughnuts, tubes, strips and
shells could be made by changing the die (Rizvi et al.1995).
3. The recent development in food extrusion technology
3.1. Hot melt extrusion (HME)
HME was used for the first time in the plastic industry, later its appli-
cation got extended to the food industry for cereal’s food product manu-
facturing. Hot-melt extrusion is an efficient process of forming solid dis-
persions by altering physico-chemical properties and thermal and me-
chanical characteristics for improving the stability and bioavailability
of the food and drugs. In food processing, HME has become well estab-
lished industrial process due to its ability to improve solubility, gela-
tinize starches and denature protein. Its popularity rests on its ability
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Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019
to improve digestibility, inactivate enzymes, microorganisms and other
anti-nutritional factors also (Alam et al., 2019). HME has a broad and
profound application in the field of the pharmaceutical industry where
drugs with molecular dispersions of active bio-compounds and polymers
or lipids can be developed for controlled, modified, and targeted drug
delivery (Maniruzzaman et al., 2012). The significant parts of a funda-
mental hot melt extruder are,
1 A platform which supports the drive system.
2 A barrel for extrusion.
3 Rotating screw set up on a screw shaft.
4 An extrusion die for deciding the shape of the product.
The general extruder used for HME is composed of either one or
two screws rotating in the same or opposite direction in a stationary
barrel. The manufacturing of barrel is done in such a way that it is di-
vided into sections to reduce the residence time of molten materials
(Maniruzzaman et al., 2012). The sectioned parts of the barrel are then
bolted or clamped together, and the barrel end is connected with an end-
plate die where the shape of materials is determined based on the die
used. According to the requirement for the various purposes, the shape
of the extrudate can be in the form of rods, pellets, tablets etc. Twin
screw extruders are widely used for hot melt extrusion process. A typical
twin-screw extruder consists of a feed zone, compression zone and me-
tering zone.The function of the feed zone is the consistent feeding from
hopper and mixing. The compression zone is to accomplish additional
mixing by employing special screw elements such as interrupted flights
and kneading blocks. The compression zone has the primary purpose of
melting, homogenizing and shearing of the extrudate, which makes it
a suitable form to reach the metering zone. In this last zone, the food
particle becomes melted and mixed under uniform temperature to form
food with even composition (Fang et al., 2003).
Some of the well-known applications of the HME includes; its drug
taste-masking properties by microencapsulation, its ability to enhance
the solubility of hydrophobic compounds and its utility to prepare
nanoparticles (Maniruzzaman et al.2012). Ramirez et al. (2020) devel-
oped an innovative dietary health supplement rich in flavonoids ((−)-
epicatechin, extracted from cocoa and found the potentialities of these
compounds against the risk of Atherosclerotic pathology. The hot-melt
extrusion is found to be a better option among current technologies
including spray drying, co-crystallization, freeze-drying, etc., in terms
of target delivery, repeatability and taste masking properties. The hot
melt products have very less tendency towards the recrystallization as
it has more thermodynamic stability (Huang et al., 2019). During the
hot-melt extrusion process, the native crystallites get melted, and the
redistribution of water through the granules takes place. Even though
the application of HME is widely seen in pharmaceutical industries,
Alam et al. (2019) has investigated the functional properties of hot melt
extruded insect-based pellets as a potential source of protein in food. In
this process, the pellets were formed either by mixing insect flour with
cornflour or insect flour as alone was used. A co-rotating twin-screw ex-
truder was used for the extrusion of pellet with screw speed 100 rpm
and water rate of 0.03 kg/h and the temperature 70 °C at die zone. As a
result of hot-melt extrusion, the solubility, stability and dispersion prop-
erties of the pellets were improved. However, the commercial applica-
tion of extruded insect pellets is still distant considering how the insects
were fed. Ottoboni et al. (2017) conducted similar studies to investigate
the effect of extrusion on the digestibility of five blends containing H.
illucens (HI) larvae or pupae and wheat flour with a single-barrel tem-
perature of 60 °C and a single screw speed 60 rpm. The production of
insect flour based snacks using HME can be a sustainable method that
can meet the protein requirement of the huge population all over the
world. The meat replacements, feedstuffs, cheese creams, drugs etc. are
some other applications of HME (Ramirez et al., 2020).
The hot-melt extrusion technology has been applied to develop neu-
traceutical food containing encapsulated bioactive compounds. The easy
interaction between wall materials (maltodextrin, corn starch, man-
K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of SC–CO2 assisted extrusion.
nose and b-cyclodextrins) and bioactive compounds (flavours, vitamins,
color, essential oils) is achieved during the process when wall mate-
rials are plasticized. Using low-cost carrier agents along with plasti-
cizers reduces the glass transition temperature thereby protecting the
heat-sensitive bio-active compounds (Zuidam and Heinrich, 2010). The
solvent-free method ensures excellent throughput with less exposure to
oxygen in the extrusion channel. Therefore, these findings have pro-
vided the opportunities to further investigate the application of HME
to develop products with reduced particle size, increased solubility and
enhanced antioxidant capacity. Nevertheless, further research is neces-
sary regarding their toxicity and bioaccessibility of HME products before
application in the food industry.
3.2. Extrusion using supercritical carbon dioxide
The concept of supercritical assisted extrusion cooking (SC–CO2 Ex-
trusion) was first introduced by Rizvi et al. (1992). This method was
used to develop a uniform end product with more surface smoothness.
Extrusion using supercritical carbon dioxide provides more expansion
than using steam (water) and can act as a leavening agent, thus reduc-
ing the processing time to develop leavened dough (Rizvi et al. 1992).
The principle behind supercritical fluid assisted extrusion involves
a supercritical fluid preferably CO2, to be injected as a blowing agent
to cooked feed, containing volatile micronutrients, flavourings and
colourants (Rizvi et al., 1995). Fig. 1 represents the schematic diagram
of an SC–CO2 assisted extruder. Water is mixed in the ingredients to
act as a plasticizer, and the role of steam is to heat the ingredients for
cooking. After cooking, the steam helps to prevent product puffing and
to lower the temperature of the product through water flash off in the
cooling zone. Besides, cooling zone, reduces the temperature <100 °C
and pressure is raised eventually over supercritical pressure. Supercrit-
ical carbon dioxide is then mixed with feed at the next zone. The shear
that is developed out of the mixing screw, breaks down the supercrit-
ical carbon dioxide into small bubbles and this nucleated gas bubbles,
results in expansion of the extrudates when it exits the die (Chen and
Rizvi, 2006).
The potential application of SC–CO2 assisted extrusion in improv-
ing physico-chemical properties, appearance, expansion and antioxidant
properties of extrudates was reported by Lohani and Muthukumarap-
pan (2017). From their study, it was reported that the phenolic and an-
tioxidant activity of extrudate was improved by 12% and 7%. The extru-
dates were developed using cornflour, hydrodynamic cavitated sorghum
flour, and apple pomace. The product thus developed has low water ab-
sorption index and high water solubility index. But it failed to develop
fiber rich extrudate (4% reduction) and had poor in-vitro digestibil-
ity (3% reduction) when compared to the control samples. The batch
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Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019
production using SC–CO2 based extrusion was successfully used for de-
veloping shelf-stable nutritious rice-soy chips fortified with micronutri-
ents and spirulina with better nutrient retention and sensory acceptance
(Bashir et al., 2017).
As a part of by-product utilization, fruit pomace and whey, which
otherwise would go as wastes, were further utilized to develop a nutri-
tional puffed snack by incorporating them into cereal formulations, us-
ing SC–CO2 based extrusion (Paraman et al., 2015). The products were
less in density and were rich in dietary fibres, polyphenols and vitamin
C. A higher retention rate (84% and 74%) of total phenolics and antioxi-
dants of apple pomace were found in the final extrudates. A similar study
was conducted by Yoon and Rizvi (2020) on concentrated greek acid
whey which was used as a replacement to water in developing milk con-
centrate based extruded snacks. The addition of Greek acid whey signif-
icantly improved the functional (crispiness, crunchiness and hardness),
nutritional and sensory properties of the product, while comparing with
the commercially available extruded products. The browning, which re-
sults from high protein and carbohydrate content in whey protein-based
snacks during normal conditions of extrusion, (high temperature, pres-
sure and shear) can be significantly reduced/ by SCF extrusion (Zhang
et al.2019). In a study conducted by Panak Balentić et al. (2019), Su-
percritical CO2 was used as a blowing agent to develop an indirectly
expanded extruded corn snacks made of defatted hazelnut, camelina,
pumpkin, and hemp cakes. The method significantly improved physical
(bulk density, crispiness, fracturability and expansion ratio) and sen-
sory properties of the snacks and has excellent practical implications at
household level as the product can be expanded by microwave heating
for few seconds. Apart from SC–CO2 , N2 injection was also used for im-
proving the expansion and textural properties of extruded snacks that
are rich in protein and fiber concentration. There was a substantial im-
provement in the physical microstructure of the extruded product (red
lentil puffed snacks) after injecting N2 at 300 KPa during extrusion. This
resulted in the development of the product with lower density and nu-
merous minute cells that are evenly distributed (Luo et al., 2020). The
snacks thus developed can be included in various nutritional programs
like mid-day meals in our country due to its palatability, shelf stability
and economic feasibility. Some of the applications of SCF extrusion are
explicated in Table 1.
3.3. Extrusion based 3‐D printing
Extrusion based 3-D printing is a novel technique, where numerous
researches are going on to develop/ built computer-aided designed food
products on a platform through layer-by-layer deposition (Zhu et al.,
2019). It was Yang et al. (2001) who patented for fabricating and rapid
prototyping of 3-D food objects in 2001. Later, extrusion-based 3-D
K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
Table 1
Selected recent studies on Supercritical fluid based extrusion (SCF).
Sl.No Food matrix Product composition
1 Spirulina supplemented Spirulina platensis, Waxy
rice-soy crisps rice flour, toasted defatted
soy flour, distilled
monoglyceride,
vitamin/mineral premix
(iron, zinc, vitamin A, C)
2 Fruit pomace and liquid Starch extrudate, Apple
whey based snacks pomace extrudate, Apple
pomace—cheese whey
extrudate, Protein
fortified apple pomace
puffs (Apple pomace,
pre-gelatinized starch, soy
protein isolate, dried
yogurt powder, brown
Sugar, lecithin, and
distilled monoglycerides,
.vanilla extract, apple
flavor, salt, cinnamon,
citric acid, nutmeg)
3 Greek acid whey based Concentrated Greek acid
extrudate whey (GAW) hydrolyzed
and unhydrolyzed (GAW)
4 Defatted hazelnut, Corn grits defatted hazelnut,
camelina, pumpkin, and camelina seeds, pumpkin
hemp cakes in corn seed, and hemp cakes
based extruded snacks
5 Apple pomace and Corn flour, Sorghum flour
Sorghum flour based and Apple pomace
extruded snack (10:90:10, 10:80:20 and
10:70:30)
printing was applied for manufacturing chocolates, cake frosting, pro-
cessed cheese, and sugar cookies (Lipton et al., 2010; Lipton et al., 2015;
Liu et al., 2017a).
The 3-D printing involves digitally controlled extrusion process,
which can be used to build food products with sophisticated design,
geometries, internal structures, food structure with high surface to vol-
Extrusion and extrudate
parameters studied
Process parameters:
Temperature (100 °C),
spirulina (2–8%)
Quality parameters:
Proximate composition,
dietary fiber, added
nutrients, texture and
morphological
characteristics, sensory
evaluation
Process parameters: Feed
rate (35 kg/h), screw
speed (100–120 rpm)
Barrel temperature (25
°C), concentrated whey,
moisture content Quality
parameters:
Physico-chemical,
nutritional and Textural
properties
Process parameters: Feed
rate (40 and 35 kg/h),
screw speed of
(120–100 rpm),
SC–CO2 injection
pressure(17.2 MPa),
SC–CO2 injection rate
(0.45 and 0.47 kg/h),
product temperature (93
and 89 °C)
Quality parameters:
physicochemical, textural,
and sensory properties
Process parameter:
Temperature (90–110 -
120 °C) screw speed
(100 rpm), dosing speed:
35 rpm CO2 pressure
(140 bar)
Quality parameters:
physical (expansion ratio,
bulk density), textural and
sensory properties
Process parameters: Feed
moisture content (15, 20
and 25 g/100 g), Barrel
temperature (80, 120 95
and 160 °C), screw speed
(100, 150 and 200 rpm),
Quality
parameters:Expansion
ratio (ER), water solubility
index (WSI),
water absorption index
(WAI), total phenolic
content, Antioxidant
activity, Maillard’s
reaction rate
ume ratio and customized nutrition content and compositions (Liu et al.,
2019b; Wang et al., 2018; Sun et al., 2018). This robotic construction
process, with the help of computer control involves, the loading of food
materials and extruding them through a predefined path, resulting in
the layer-by-layer deposition (Sun et al., 2018). Fig. 2 illustrates the
practical design of an extrusion-based 3-D food printer.
4
Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019
Major Findings References
The extrusion process Bashir et al. (2017)
retained minerals
(87–100%), vitamin A
(45–50%) and vitamin C
(52– 47%)
Rice-soy crisps
supplemented with 6%
spirulina got the highest
sensory score (8.50)
About 84% of the total Paraman et al. (2015)
phenolics and 74% of the
antioxidants of apple
pomace were preserved
The natural fruit color is
retained indicating the
preservation of color
pigments and the
associated bioactive
compounds
The utilization of the
agro-industry waste
streams offers effective
preservation functional
ingredients
GAW textural characteristics Yoon & Rizvi (2020)
of hardness, crispness,
and crunchiness.
GAW has potential to
replace water during
extrusion
The addition of the Panak Balentić
by-product had a et al. (2019)
significant influence on
the expansion ratio, bulk
density, fracturability, and
crispiness
Interesting for consumers
since it can be homemade
and produced without
additives or any chemical
substances
CO2 extruded products had Lohani, and Muthuku-
12% and 7% more total marappan (2017)
phenolic content and
antioxidant activity
59% less hardness and
70% more crispness
Low absorption index and
higher water solubility
index
The high inclusion of
apple pomace produced
extrudates with improved
antioxidant, textural and
functional properties
below 100 °C extrusion
temperature.
K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of 3-D extrusion food printing (a: material extrusion type of device used for 3D printing of food materials (Lille et al., 2017); b: extrusion
process; c: Food design and fabrication samples at the National University of Singapore (Sun et al., 2018)).
According to (Derossi et al., 2019), the extrusion of food materials
represents fused deposition technology, where a syringe- based extruder
is used to deposit food paste of high viscosity, following computer de-
signed and controlled path pattern. The extrusion-based 3-D printing
involves, food material filled in a cylinder/syringe attached to a robotic
arm and extruding food material through a nozzle from the cylinder.
The critical parameters in developing extrusion-based 3-D printed food,
with high quality and precision are,
•
Rheological properties of the food inks (ideally, shear-thinning be-
havior), being extruded and its associated processing conditions (for
example - nozzle (die) dimensions (height, size, diameter), the print-
ing speed/ extrusion rate, infill percentage and the layer height) that
are capable of developing a product with excellent mechanical in-
tegrity and stability after deposition.
• The temperature of extrusion, based on which the extrusion-based
3-D printing can be divided into three categories, namely, Room
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Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019
temperature extrusion/ Soft material extrusion, Hot melt extrusion,
Hydrogel-forming extrusion.
• Printing time, which in turn depends on the composition and behav-
ior of food during printing.
• Post-processing after deposition. Post-processing is essential to en-
hance sensory appeal and palatability and to extend the shelf life of
3-D printed products, which are in ready to cook form. One should
ensure that, even after secondary processing like frying, microwave
cooking, boiling, drying etc. of 3-D printed foods, it should retain its
structural integrity and targeted geometry.
To print the food products through extrusion, several critical param-
eters like composition, nutritional components, rheological properties,
thermal stability of the food, ease of deposition and ability of the food to
retain the structure after the disposition have to be taken into considera-
tion. The extrusion of food substance can take place at room temperature
or melting conditions. Some of the successfully developed products by
3-D printing include chocolates, cereal-based cookies, cakes and pasta,
K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
sugar powder-based products, meat and processed cheese products are
depicted in the Table 2.
Advanced researches are going on for developing fruit and vegetable-
based matrix for food printing. Severini et al. (2018b) printed fruit and
vegetable smoothie consisting of carrot, kiwi, pears, broccoli, avocado
and analyzed the micro-structural and morphological properties of ex-
trudate, affected by printing speed and flow rate. A shelf-life study was
also conducted for eight days at 5 °C based on changes in microbiolog-
ical, antioxidant and sensorial attributes.The visual appearance of 3-D
printed samples was much appreciated during sensory studies by the
panellists. The microbiological study revealed a need for sanitization
of all parts that come in contact with the food during large scale com-
mercial applications. Currently, many types of researches are going on
to develop multi-3-D printing of food products. This method is used to
develop highly attractive multi-textured and flavoured products with
complex geometry through extrusion printing, by the controlled dispo-
sition of materials. A study conducted by Liu et al. (2018a) developed
a dual extrusion 3-D printing model and extruded mashed potato and
strawberry juice gel. The study suggested that the method has the po-
tential to tailor mechanical and textural properties of extrudate through
varying infill percentage as total printing time, firmness, hardness, and
gumminess increased with infill levels.
3-D printing is gaining attraction in an innovative consumer-driven
market, considering older adults with mastication and swallowing diffi-
culties. A customized 3-D printed meal can be served to the people suf-
fering from dysphagia (choking and aspiration while consuming food)
which further multiplies its popularity. To improve the printability of
non-printable food like meat (pork), which has highly fibrous, hard and
denser microstructure, food hydrocolloids like xanthan gum and guar
gum were added resulting in improved rheological, textural, and mi-
crostructural properties. (Dick et al., 2020; Dick et al., 2019). Simi-
larly, Wang et al. (2018), found that the addition of flow and viscos-
ity enhancer (NaCl) at a rate of 1.5% improved rheological property,
gel strength, water holding capacity (WHC), and water distribution of
fish surimi gel to use it as a material for 3-D printing. But on contrary,
egg yolk after heat treatment (at 76 °C for 8 and 10 min or 80 °C for
6 min) exhibited better printability without any flow enhancers or hy-
drocolloids (E. Xu et al., 2020). Although there are numerous studies on
extruding fibrous meat, future researches should focus on developing a
3-D printer with uninterrupted temperature control throughout the ex-
truder sections. One should also focus not only in terms of printability
(mechanical and rheological aspects) but should on food safety and as-
sociated risks as meat being a highly perishable commodity (Dick et al.,
2019).
The application of 3-D extrusion-based foods also can be extended to
develop healthier personal food based on needs, tastes, dietary pattern
of different ages, healthy lifestyles and customer requirements. Fused
Deposition Modeling (FDM), otherwise called high melting extrusion,
are usually used for printing non-food materials. The technology is ex-
tended and applied to develop 3-D based printed chocolate due to its
easy to melt characteristics. Le Tohic et al. (2018) developed a com-
plex structure of cheese melted at 75 °C for 12 min using FDM food
printing. Kumar et al. (2016) attempted to develop low-cost extrusion-
based 3-D printer for meeting commercial interest. The study deals
with operation problems, complexities, and challenges in developing the
model, by using two different food pastes, including Nutella○R chocolate
and sugar paste. From the numerous research activities going on in
the field of extrusion-based 3-D printing, we can expect this inno-
vative technology soon capturing the global markets through mass
production, offering novel business opportunities and new consumer
experiences.
There is immense potential for 3-D based extrusion of food in the up-
coming centuries. There is a need for further investigations and research
for developing extrusion-based low-cost 3-D printers at the commercial
scale, that can print complex geometries without any fluctuation in the
process parameters such as temperature and printing time. It is also es-
6
Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019
sential to identify the potential ingredients with high nutritional value
to meet both food safety and quality requirements.
4. Novel functional foods using extrusion cooking
The extrusion cooking is a promising technique to develop Ready-
to-Eat and Ready-to-Cook food with functional properties by altering its
structure using hydrothermal treatments without affecting nutritional
bioavailability. The product developed by extrusion is gaining increased
popularity in the food industry due to the fact that various ingredients,
especially plant-derived-by-products can be utilized effectively to man-
ufacture novel value-added products. The upcoming section describes
some of the recent research and development that happened in the area
of novel functional food by extrusion.
4.1. Meat analogues
Meat analogues are food products that are made to have a similar
texture, color, taste and form as meat. The readily available low-cost
vegetables, cereals and pulses in India have potential advantages and
prospects to be used as ingredients to develop meat analogues. It can
improve the nutritional and functional characteristics of such meat sub-
stitutes. The fibrous texture development of plant-based protein is the
most challenging and high moisture extrusion is one promising method
extensively used worldwide. Twin-screw extruders can be used for con-
tinuous mixing, heating, shearing and forming of plant-based protein
sources with moisture content up to 75%, to develop a striated and fi-
brous network (Wild 2016). Protein denaturation occurs at higher extru-
sion temperature (100–200 °C) and pressure (1.72–6.07 MPa) combined
by shear, (mechanical shear rate of 120–180 s−1 ) which would result
in the development of molten mass. This molten mass is later pushed
through cooling die to obtain protein strands (Arêas,1992). Extensive
researches on texture development were initiated long ago using high
moisture extrusion and by the end of 1990s, the commercial production
lines with capacities of 200–700 kg/h are made available.
Although researchers had succeeded in developing fibrous texture to
plant-based meat substitutes and received attention, the product could
not capture the broader market due to poor aroma and tastelessness. A
study conducted by Chiang et al. (2020b) found that Maillard-reacted
beef bone hydrolysate provides important sensory aspects, thereby con-
tributing to their appearance, texture, flavor, and aroma. Similarly,
Chiang et al. (2020a) conducted a study to understand the physico-
chemical properties of the extrudate from Maillard‐reacted beef bone
hydrolysate and plant proteins (soy protein and wheat gluten) as an ap-
plication in sausages. The study concluded that, further improvements
are required to develop a plant protein sausage with better textural and
sensory characteristics. Recent researches on the development of meat
substitutes by extrusion are given in Table 3. From these recent studies,
it can be concluded that the current energy-efficient extrusion process,
that allows large-scale production for fibrous structuring, should be ac-
celerated. Promising value addition like the incorporation of nutritional
components which are essential for the normal physiological and bio-
chemical process should also be encouraged without inflicting harm on
the environment.
4.2. Fortification
Food can be fortified by utilizing waste generated from the food
processing industries to develop value-added products. Extrusion, a
high‐temperature‐short‐time (HTST) process, can be one among many
technologies to produce snacks with high nutritional value and sensory
acceptance without affecting the product safety. The blends of native
flours rich in carbohydrates and protein content can be fortified with
fibres, vitamins and minerals, particularly present in fruits and vegeta-
bles (pomace and peels). These by-products are subjected to extrusion
cooking, to develop novel food with improved physico-chemical and
 K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
Table 2
Selected recent studies on extrusion based 3-D printing.

Extrusion method
Sl. No Food matrix Product composition (equipment used) Extrusion and extrudate parameters studied References

1 Egg rice blend
2 Soy Protein
Concentrate
3 Rice dough
4 Potato and probiotics
5 Egg yolk
7
Egg white, yolk, rice flour
Soy protein isolate (SPI) with/without
xanthan gum (at 0.5 g/30 g of SPI)
and NaCl solution at different
concentrations (1, 2 or 3 g in
100 ml of distilled water)
Water, Rice (waxy rice, japonica rice,
and indica rice)
Mashed potato and
Bifidobacteriumanimalis subsp. Lactis
bb-12
Heat-induced egg yolk paste
Soft material extrusion Nozzle height, diameter, speed, motor speed, Anukiruthika et al. (2020)
extrusion rate, physical mechanical and rheological
properties
Soft material extrusion Correlations between rheological and textural Phuhongsung et al. (2020)
properties as well as LF-NMR spectroscopic
characteristics of the gels and 3-D printing ability
Soft material extrusion Rheological properties shape, highest precision, and Liu et al.(2020a)
most compact microstructure, Shape stability and
in vitro starch digestibility after steaming
Soft material extrusion Nozzle diameter (0.6, 1.0 and 1.4 mm), printing Liu et al. (2020b)
temperature (25, 35, 45 and 55 °c),yield stress and
consistency index, rheology, probiotic bacterial
viability, storage study
Soft material extrusion Preheat treatment (72–84 °C) for 2–12 min, rheology, E. Xu et al. (2020)
storage modulus, loss modulus, viscosity, CLSM,
FTIR, (protein structures and 3-D printing
characteristics)

6 Rice husk Milled rice husk, mixer ground, guar Soft material extrusion Rheological behavior and physical characteristics, Nida et al. (2020)
gum printing speed, motor speed, extrusion pressure,
critical nozzle height, Flow rate
7 Button Mushroom Mushroom powder, wheat flour Soft material extrusion Printing speed, Nozzle diameter, Extrusion rate, Keerthana et al.(2020)
Printing precision, Extrusion pressure, post
processing of 3-D printed constructs (Microwave
cooking), Sensory attributes
8 Potato Potato starch gel Hot melt extrusion printing temperature and PS concentrations, printing Liu et al. (2020c)
accuracy, structural strength, structure and
rheological properties
9 Tomato puree Tomato paste Soft material extrusion Rheological properties, printing stability, Zhu et al. (2019)
dispensability
10 Milk protein composite Milk protein concentrate, Sodium Soft material extrusion Rheological properties, TPA, LF NMR Liu et al. (2019b)
gel Casienate
11 Soy Protein Isolate SPC, gelatin, sodium alginate Fused deposition, soft Rheology, printability, geometry, texture analysis Chen et al. (2019)
material extrusion
12 Beef and lard Beef and lard Soft material extrusion Infill density, fat content, cooking loss, shrinkage, Dick et al. (2019b)
material retention, hardness, cohesiveness,
chewiness
13 Multi extruded Mashed potato strawberry gel Dual extrusion 3-D Different models for dual extrusion, Rheological and Liu et al. (2018a)
mashed potato printing textural properties, infill percentage

Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019

strawberry gel
(continued on next page)
 K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
Table 2 (continued)

Sl. No Food matrix Product composition Extrusion method Extrusion and extrudate parameters studied References
(equipment used)

14 Cereal snacks with Wheat flour dough, yellow Soft material extrusion Morphological and microstructure analyses Severini et al. (2018a)
insects mealworms (Tenebriomolitor) mechanical properties of snacks, in-vitro protein
digestibility
15 Lemon juice gel Potato starch and lemon juice Soft material extrusion Nozzle diameter,height,extrusion rate, mechanical and Yang et al. (2018a)
rheological properties
16 Mashed potato Potato, potato starch, trehalose Soft material extrusion Rheological property, extrudability, printability, gel Liu et al. (2018b)
strength, water holding capacity, water distribution
and microstructure
17 Fruit and vegetable Smoothie (carrot, kiwi, pears, broccoli, Soft material extrusion Morphology and microstructure, printing speed, Severini et al. (2018b)
smoothie avocado) Microbiological, antioxidant and sensorial
attributes during shelf life
18 Cheese Processed cheese Hot melt extrusion Temperature ad time (75 °C, 12 min), extrusion rate, Letohic et al. (2018)
texture profile analysis, rheology, CLSM
19 Cereal based snack Wheat dough, probiotics, Ca- Soft material extrusion Rheology, microstructure, surface to volume ratio, Yang et al. (2018b)
Casienate baking (145 °C, 175 °C, 205 °C)
20 Fish surumi Surumi fish and NaCl (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, Soft material extrusion Low frequency-nmr relaxation measurements, Wang et al., 2018
8

2.0% w/w) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Water

holding capacity (WHC), Gel strength, Extrusion
rate, Nozzle diameter size, Nozzle moving speed
21 Chocolate Dark Dark chocolate buttons, Magnesium Melting extrusion and Temperature, wall thickness, height, diameter, Mantihal et al. (2017)
chocolate buttons stearate deposition melting properties, physical properties (melting
properties, flow behavior, snap ability)
22 Chocolate jam Chocolate jam Soft material extrusion Deformation behavior capability in dimensional Kim et al. (2017)
stability and degree of handling (dimensional
stability test, handling properties assessment, and
shear rheology test)
23 Chocolate Dark cooking chocolate (meltz, nestle, Hot melt extrusion Chocolate spanning distance, extrusion rate, Lanaro et al. (2017)
Australia) movement speed, cooling rate,
24 Customizable Pectin ink CaCl2 , bovine serum Soft material extrusion Change in formulation, rheology, firmness and
water-based porous albumin, sugar syrup strength of the printed object, shearing rate, Vancauwenberghe et al. (2017)
food stimulants firmness, strength of gel
25 Wheat dough - Soft material extrusion Macrostructure and microstructure, infill percentage, Severini et al.(2016)
layer height, baking strength
26 Turkey meat and Transglutaminase, turkey meat puree, Soft material extrusion Post printing test, geometry retention after deep fry Lipton et al., 2010
celery celery

Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019

 K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
Table 3
Summary of selected studies on developing meat analogues and novel fortified foods developed using extrusion technology.

Sl. No Product developed Product composition Extrusion Parameters Major findings References

Meat Analogues
1 Micro algae and Soy Spray dried Micro algae Screw speed (375 rpm) Barrel Microalgae up to 50% affected the formation of fibers, Caporgno et al. (2020)
protein concentrate (Auxenochlorellaprotothecoides), temperature (20 °C −140 °C), which could be balanced by reducing moisture
(0–50%) and Soy protein Moisture content (50–65%) levels. Higher fat content of microalgae resulted in
concentrate lubrication effect and acted as passive fillers and
limited the access of intracellular proteins
Microalgae integration improved the extrudate
nutritional profile
2 Soy protein soy protein concentrate (0 Moisture content (50–80%) Barrel Gluten and moisture contents of the raw material Guo et al. (2020)
concentrate and −40%)Wheat gluten (0–40%) temperature (20 °C-150 °C) regulate retention rate of volatile flavor substances
Wheat gluten Natural flavor powder (1%) Feed rate (30 g/min) by affecting the microstructure, water distribution,
protein structure, and interactive force of the meat
analogs
3 Peanut protein Peanut protein Extrusion temperature Shear way can improve the fibrous Zhang et al. (2020)
(135–155 °C)Screw speed structure.Extrusion temperature is the decisive
(180–240 rpm)Feed rate factor in the tensile properties and springiness. The
(100–133.3 g/min)Moisture content moisture content plays a more important role in
(50–60%)Shear rate (1.8 rpm/g the color values and the hardness.
4 Renneted casein-based milk, Calcium chloride Sheet die temperature (40–80 °C) Degree of texturization (anisotropy) of casein based Kern et al. (2020)
gel lactic acid, chymosin Screw speed (10 rpm)Feed rate extrudates increased with increasing maximum
(15 kg/h) shear stress and by adjusting sheet die
temperature
5 Fermented texturized Isolated soy protein (500 g/kg), Moisture content (40 and 50%), Feed Fermenting the TVP extruded at 50% MC has Gu et al. (2020)
9

vegetable proteins wheat gluten (400 g/kg) and rate (100 g/min) Screw speed potential to produce a new type of TVP based B.
as meat analogue corn starch (100 g/kg) (200 rpm) Die temperature (130 °C) subtilis fermented food.
Fortified Extruded Products
6 Gluten free prebiotic Lentil flour, Saccharomyces Temperature (140 °C- 160 °C), Screw Extrusion have a beneficial effect by increasing Ciudad-
from Lentil flour cerevisiae (Nutritional yeast speed (500 rpm), Moisture content desirable prebiotic compounds (85% increase in Mulero et al. (2020)
and Nutritional extract) (17%) total 𝛼-galactosides), and decreasing
yeast non-nutritional factors (inositol phosphates (IPs),
trypsin inhibitors and lectins).
7 Semolina extruded Semolina, White button Shaft speed (200 rpm), feed rate Extrusion with mushroom resulted in reduced Lu et al. (2020)
snack with mushroom (Agaricusbisporus), (20 g/min) product expansion, decreased water absorption
mushroom Shiitake (Lentinulaedodes) and index, increased water solubility index and altered
Porcini mushrooms (Boletus microstructure characteristics. Found higher levels
edulis) of phenolic compounds and antioxidants reduced
predictive glycaemic response
8 Instant Kudzu powder Kudzu powder Moisture contents (10%, 15%, 20%), Extrusion improved instant properties of Kudzu Wang et al. (2020)
feed rate (103 kg/h), Screw speed powder, Agglomeration reduced from 42.41% to
(130 rpm) 0.84%–1.46%
9 Artichoke leaf powder, Artichoke leaf powder:Wheat flour Flow rate (55 ± 1 g/min), Screw speed Extrusion resulted decrease in cynarin and cynaroside Guven et al. (2018)
Wheat flour (0:100, 3:97, 6:94, 9:91 ) (250 rpm), Barrel temperature contents, Improved bioaccessibility of cynarin by
zones (80 °C, 90 °C, 130 °C and 30–44%
150 °C, die: 128 °C)

Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019

10 Extruded snacks from Brown rice, Straw mushrooms Flow rate 4.8 kg/h, Temperature Product related emotions screened by CATA. Extruded
brown rice and (SM) (Volvariellavolvacea) and 140 °C, Screw speed 350 rpm brown rice-based snacks containing mushroom Tepsongkroh et al. (2020)
dried mushroom phoenix mushrooms (PM) could be improved through savoury seasoning
(Pleurotuspulmonarius) addition with 65% and 75.83% of consumers
reporting willingness to purchase.
(continued on next page)
 K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
Table 3 (continued)

Sl. No Product developed Product composition Extrusion Parameters Major findings References

11 Cheese flavoured Corn grit, Salt 78, sunflower oil, Feed flow rate of 101 g/min; Screw Pre-extrusion flavoring with aroma precursors allows Menis-
expanded snacks monosodium glutamate, amino speed at 192 rpm;Extrusion the production of snacks with desirable physical Henrique et al. (2020)
acid cysteine, food-grade temperature (91.8, 100, 120, 140 6 and sensory characteristics, and better nutritive
butyric acid 107 and 148.2 °C) value, due to the low incorporation of lipids
12 white beans and red White Aura and red Toska Temperature (50 80 100 120 Extrusion-cooking reduced the retrogradation Mitrus et al. (2020)
beans extruded 130 °C),Screws speeds: 300, 400, tendency of bean paste due to starch degradation
snacks 500, 600 and 700 rpm,Feed flow occurring during processing
rate (20 kg/hr)
13 Expanded snacks from Whole corn flour, Bean flour Temperature (120–170 °C), Screw Physicochemical, nutritional, antioxidant, and Félix-
corn and bean flour speed 50–240 rpm phytochemical characterization of expanded snacks Medina et al. (2020)
were studied. Higher antioxidant activity was
found, Helps to prevent chronic diseases
14 Red lentils puffed Red lentil flour Moisture content (18%–22%), Screw N2 injection during extrusion has a great potential in Luo et al. (2020)
snacks speed (150 rpm–200 rpm), and manipulating extrudate expansion, microstructure,
Blowing agent (i.e., N2 ) injection texture, and color of red lentil extrudates
pressure (0 − 500 kPa)
15 High fiber ready-to-eat Carrot pomace content (10, 17.5 Feed moisture content (14, 17 and Moisture content affected hardness of the extruded Shirazi et al. (2020)
expanded snack and 25%) 20% db), Die temperature (120, 145 snacks carrot pomace content decreased the
from barley flour and 170 °C) expansion ratio and cell average size while the
and carrot pomace hardness and cell wall thickness increased, Soluble
dietary fiber increased
16 Insect and Pea powder Corn grits, Pea powder, Alphito- Feed rate (1.58 kg/h). The screw speed Physicochemical and nutritional properties of García-
based extruded biusdiaperinus powder (150 rpm), Barrel temperatures (25, extrudates were not strongly affected by the Segovia et al. (2020)
snacks and Tenebriomolitor powder 70, 170, and 175 °C) addition of insect and pea powder (higher
selenium content).
10

17 Value added snacks Whole wheat flour, crude Co-rotating twin screw extruder, Extrusion had a positive effect on physic-chemical, Bhat et al. (2019)
from whole wheat lycopene (CL), tomato powder Temperature (100 °C), Screw speed antioxidant and sensory properties of snacks,
flour (TP) and saffron extracts (SE) (300 rpm) Storage period lowered the hardness and
antioxidant properties of snacks.
18 Functional snack from White rice, pea and carob fruit Feed flow rate (25 kg/h), Temperature Galactosides and phenols contents increases and can Arribas et al. (2019)
rice pea and carob (125 °C), The screw speed exert healthy functions, Phytate and lectins are
fruits (900–950 rpm) reduced, but protease inhibitors are abolish after
extrusion
19 Expanded snacks from pea starch and pea protein oat Die temperature (146–175 °C), Blend Higher porosity and brownish color were obtained for Do Carmo et al. (2019)
pea and oat fiber Sweoat bran moisture content, Moisture Content highly expanded extrudate, Sensory attributes
fractions (11.2 and 16.8% dry basis), screw highly correlated with those determined by texture
speed 200 rpm analysis, 𝛽-glucan molecular weight slightly
reduced at highest Specific Mechanical energy
20 Snack from type 4 White sorghum phosphate salts Screw speed (40-rpm) Barrel phosphorylation of sorghum starch was possible to Escobar-Puentes et al.
resistant sorghum (4 g/100 g starch dry weight) temperature (93.8–136 °C) produce resistant starch and simultaneously to (2019)
starch obtain an extruded snack with acceptable physical
and sensorial properties. Additionally, it showed
that sorghum is a good alternative source of starch
for the formulation of extruded snacks.
21 Insect based meat Soy protein concentrate, soy fiber, Feed rate (3.41 kg/h)screw speed High-moisture extruded meat substitutes can contain Smetana et al. (2018)
analogue Alphitobiusdiaperinus protein (400 rpm) Temperature up to 40% of insect biomass, Water content was

Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019

concentrate (160–170 °C) important for biting properties, Adding of soy fiber
improved the texture of the samples
22 Ready to eat snacks wheat flour, brewer’s spent grain, Feed moisture (12–17, Feed rate of Increasing the water feed to 15% increased the level Stojceska et al. (2009)
from food Red cabbage 25 kg/h Screw speed of 200 rpm%) of total dietary fiber (TDF) in all the extrudates
by-products Barrel temperatures (80 °C at feed and also affected the expansion ratio, bulk density,
entry and 120 °C at die exit) hardness, WSI, SME and color. Extrusion cooking
increased the level of total antioxidant capacity
(TAC) and total phenolic compounds (TPC).
K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al. Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019

Table 4
Summary of some of the recent studies and products developed using extrusion technology.

11
K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
Fig. 3. Biopolymer extrusion (Xu et al., 2020): flowchart of extrusion of biopolymers for the development of biodegradable packaging materials.
nutritional properties. Many researchers have conducted studies on the
effect of extrusion parameters (extrusion temperature, moisture content
of extrusion mix, time, configuration, screw speed, die pressure etc.)
and raw material composition (moisture content in raw materials, par-
ticle size, the proportion of each ingredient) on retaining the quality of
the extrudate in terms of nutrition, functional properties and extended
shelf-life. The extrusion has shown a positive effect on starch and protein
digestibility (Wang et al., 2017) and increasing the total fiber content
(Rashid et al., 2015).
In contrast, the effect on vitamins and minerals varies due to their
chemical structures (Leonard et al., 2020). Dar et al. (2014) reported a
reduction in vitamin C and 𝛽-carotene content in carrot pomace based
rice extrudates due to low moisture and high temperature during ex-
trusion. But, a higher retention of water-soluble vitamins like riboflavin
and thiamine (B group Vitamin) at higher feed moisture and lower tem-
perature are widely reported due to faster material flow and reduction
in residence time of feed inside the barrel. Extensive research has been
conducted on extruding starch and protein-rich food with bioactive com-
pounds to improve functionality given in Table 3.
4.3. Extrusion for starch modification
IECT (Improved Extrusion Cooking Technology) is a novel gelatiniza-
tion technology modified from traditional screw extruder for improving
extrudate property especially, starch modification. The IECT was first
introduced by Liu et al. (2011) for developing textured rice from bro-
ken rice and bran as raw materials. Conventional extrusion process in-
volving high temperature, high pressure and shear force can be used to
expand and improve extrudate structural properties. In contrast, IECT
has the potential to develop desired structural properties by modifying
its physico-chemical characteristics (Table 4).
The extruder consists of a long screw (1950 cm) with longer resident
time (40–68 s), high die pressure (13.3–19.1 MPa), low temperature
(69.8–120.2 °C) and screw speed (20.1–32.6 rpm) (Zhang et al., 2014).
The IECT has been applied in various studies to improve starch di-
gestibility (Zhang et al., 2018), nutritional properties (Liu et al., 2017b),
retarding retrogradation rate of starch-rich in amylose (Liu et al.,
2019a), in addition to its effects on gelatinization properties. The food
rich in starch (consisting of amylose and amylopectin) retrogrades
12
Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019
quickly after cooking, results in hardness and loss of flavor which ef-
fects the shelf life quality and acceptability of the product. The complex
formed by the starch, fat as well as protein during IECT due to low
temperature and high pressure is hardly expanded. This helps in the nu-
trients encapsulation and improve textural properties. The starch shows
short term retrogradation properties due to water mobility of water in-
side the gel and formation of elastic 3-dimensional gel networks. This
can be degraded and inhibited by IECT effectively (Liu et al., 2011).
The adverse effects pronounced during freezing and thawing of
starch-rich foods are due to the retrogradation of starch. The IECT treat-
ment can be used effectively to improve freeze-thaw stability by reduc-
ing syneresis and retrograding interaction of starch chains (Ye et al.,
2016). A study was conducted on jack fruit seed starch to improve the
in-vitro digestibility and promote absorption of nutrients in the human
small intestine. The study indicates that IECT treatment results in a sig-
nificant increase in starch digestive fraction while reducing the resistant
starch content while comparing it with the native jackfruit seed starch
(Zhang et al., 2019b).
5. Biopolymers extrusion for biodegradable packaging
The menace caused to the environment by the use of an excessive
amount of non-biodegradable materials has led to the development
of environmentally friendly materials like biopolymers. The biopoly-
mer (biodegradable polymer or bio-based polymer) are materials whose
physical and chemical characteristics are in such a way that it degrades
entirely and undergoes deterioration on exposure to the enzymatic ac-
tion of microorganisms, aerobic and anaerobic processes (Abhilash and
Thomas, 2017). The food packaging plays an essential role in the preser-
vation of food as well as in the distribution chain (Mangaraj et al.,
2019; Mostafa et al., 2018). Biopolymers as a packaging material are
one among the key inventions, as they also can mimic the polymers
like polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), polystyrene (PS) etc. (Mangaraj et al., 2019). Some of the biopoly-
mers used for the production of biodegradable packaging involves Ther-
moplastic starch (TPS) (starch from potato, rice, corn, cassava etc.),
Proteins (keratin, gelatin, casein, gluten etc.), chitosans, Polylactic acid
(PLA), Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) and Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
(Mangaraj et al., 2019). To enhance the physical and mechanical prop-
K. Prabha, P. Ghosh, A. S et al.
erty of biopolymers like starch, structural enhancers are added and are
plasticized before extrusion. Some of the examples of structural en-
hancers include microcrystalline cellulose (MC), fibres, nano-clays, car-
boxymethylcellulose (CMC) etc. Under standard storage conditions, the
reinforced starch packaging material is used in the packaging of fruits,
vegetables and meat (Chauvet et al., 2017).
The extrusion process causes the raw material to be transformed into
a material with different structure and textural properties. Shear, tem-
perature, and pressure in extrusion cause the starch granules to melt
at low moisture content or at high moisture content to swell and get
gelatinized. A fluid phase (continuous phase) containing biopolymers is
formed by extrusion cooking, the amount of polymer in this phase leads
to the extensibility of bubble cell wall in the foam (bubble cell formed
by retaining gases released during expansion and leads to the formation
of foam structures). The interaction between different components has
to be further analysed (De Pilli andAlessandrino, 2020).
Extrusion is utilized in plastic, rubber and food industries, used to
produce bags, films, tubes, fibres, foams and pipe. It is a continuous pro-
cess in which heat and pressure are applied to the polymer and as a result
it melts and is forced through a tiny orifice. The processing conditions
during extrusion and type of biopolymer affect the quality of the end
product (Ashter, 2016).Twin-screw extrusion (TSE) method is used for
the production of biopolymers. Low-speed late fusion (LSLF) type is used
for biopolymers that are shear and temperature-sensitive. In contrast,
high-speed energy input (HSEI) is not used for biopolymer production
as it involves high heat and shear. In the case of starch extrusion, both
single screw and twin screw extruders can be used (Ashter, 2016).The
flowchart for steps involved in the production of biodegradable packag-
ing films using biopolymers are given in Fig. 3.
The conditions at which formation of lipid-protein and starch-lipid
complex in wheat flour and oleic acid during extrusion cooking along
with the textural characteristics of the extrudates was studied by De Pilli
et al. (2016). During the optimization of extrusion condition, a lipid with
amylose or protein interaction must be considered, which can influence
the extrudate texture both positively and negatively. High barrel tem-
perature about 130 °C and feed water content more than 21% must be
used to obtain a crisp expanded extrudate from wheat flour and lipid.
To obtain a homologous biodegradable film having a good mechanical
property, 80–110 °C(intermediate barrel temperature) and feed water
content in the range of 20–22% must be used.
Dhar et al. (2017) in their work on reactive extrusion of biopoly-
mer films containing Polylactic Acid /Cellulose Nanocrystals which are
used in food packaging applications, produced films that had improved
processability and better rheological behavior. Better melt strength,
thermo-mechanical properties improved oxygen and water vapor bar-
rier property. The use of this film can improve the shelf lives of oil and
dairy products.
6. Conclusion and perspectives
Food extrusion is one of the significant processing technologies
which have been used for manufacturing ready to eat snack foods, break-
fast cereals and many textured foods. Extrusion cooking contributes var-
ious benefits as compared to traditional techniques to the feed and food
processing industries.The development and modification of extruders
for the commercial application have forwarded dramatically in the last
three decades. There is a huge scope for extrusion using cryogenic and
supercritical fluids for structural modification of starch, proteins and
other nutrients. These extrusion technologies aid in maximum nutrient
retention, improve bioavailability and digestibility by minimum heat
generation and energy consumption during processing.The technique
can be employed to exhibit promising emulsifying capacity which can
profitably replace chemical emulsifiers like sodium caseinate. Future
trends reveal the scope of this technology to develop extruded pellets
by blowing SCFs. The snacks thus produced can be expanded by mi-
crowaves in a fraction of second, which would make it attractive for
13
Future Foods 3 (2021) 100019
the costumers as these snacks could be easily prepared at home and
that too without chemical additives. However, maintaining a tempera-
ture below 100 °C is a challenge during the supercritical fluid extrusion
process. Thus, this novel technology is still gaining popularity in the
research field and need experimental and modeling studies to gain bet-
ter theoretical understanding and technical expertise prior to scaling up
for industrial application.Though the application of hot melt extrusion
is pronounced in pharmaceutical and drug industry, this technique can
be employed in the food industry as its taste-masking properties, and
target delivery (modified release of functional compounds) is found to
be a better option among current technologies including spray drying,
co-crystallization, freeze-drying etc.
With the advent in the digital cooking market, 3-D food printing
brings a new dimension to fabricate fascinating food structures without
compromising on nutritional and sensorial (color, taste, flavor etc.) as-
pects. The extrusion-based 3-D printing technology, though booming in
both commercial and research perspectives, still faces challenges on ad-
justing printing parameters like printing material formulations, printing
precision and post-deposition cooking for enhancing consumer appeal
on such products.
Food industries are in search of developing novel value-added prod-
ucts with functional properties derived from plant-based-by-products
like bran, oilseed hulls, bagasse, fruit and vegetable peels and pomace.
The capacity of extrusion technology to mix diverse raw materials in
novel foods can be utilized in the production of functional foods. Meat
analogues are in trends among innovative food using high moisture
extrusion technology to meet the escalating demand for cholesterol-
free healthy food choices and increasing trend of veganism. Future re-
searches are expected to bring positive outcomes on enhancing meaty
flavor and sensory acceptance for meat analogue products from plant
origin. This is presently considered as a challenge for the commercial-
ization of such products worldwide. To improve the shelf life of starch
rice products, it is crucial to the retard starch retrogradation. In the food
industry, the IECT can be a promising technology for developing tex-
turized starch-rich products and frozen starch products with improved
stability and digestibility by modification of starch with a low rate of
retrogradation.
Final but not the least, it is imperative to find sustainable practices
in the field of food packaging where extrusion technology outstands for
developing biodegradable packaging materials from food-based biopoly-
mers.
Funding sources
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agen-
cies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100019.
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