COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

- in the early times, people questioned what created days and nights.
- they wanted to understand what heavenly bodies like stars, moons and planets are.
- Greek Philosophers:
. movements of the heavenly bodies and their effects on the world.
. Planets move in circular motion
( which created DAYS & NIGHTS)

CLAUDIUS Ptolemy
Philosopher and Astronomer

“planets, as well

Nicolaus Copernicus
Mathematician and Astronomer (Birth of the Modern Astronomy)
- Challenge the Ptolemais model(16th century)
- The center of the solar system was not the earth but the sun - Heliocentrism
- At first, the idea was rejected by the public.
- It appalled many since

Tycho Brahe
Astronomer
- observed and recorded the positions of celestial bodies
- His precise and extensive data became a
(1572 supernova)
It was a supernova explosion that Tycho Brahe observed and documented, leading to a profound
(777 stars)
Extensive observation of stars, including his cataloging of 777 stars
(Parallax)
- The effect where the position or direction of an object appears to differ when viewed from different
positions.
- Nearby celestial bodies, such as the moon, would exhibit larger parallax effects compared to more
distant stars.
- Brahe’s observations of parallax, though limited due to the technological constraints of his time,
provided important insights into the relative distances and positions of celestial objects.
(GEO-HELIOCENTRISM)
- Earth was fixed at the center of the universe, while the sun and moon orbited around it. Thus, other
planets orbited around the sun, which itself orbited around the earth.
- This was aligned with the geocentric model, which was dominant cosmological view of the time.

JOHANNES KEPLER
Mathematician and astronomer
- Formulated three fundamental laws of planetary motion that revolutionized our understanding
Third law( the law of harmonies)
Second law (The law of elypsis)

GALILEO GALILIE
Astronomer
- he was credited with significantly improving the design of the telescope and using it to
Galileo Galilie’s Discovery:
. Moon’s surface - that the moon’ surface was not smooth
. Jupiter’s moons - Io, Europa, Ganymeda, Calliste
. Phases of Venus - that Venus went through phases like moon, which supported the heliocentric
model proposed by Copernicus and challenged the geocentric view
. Saturn’s rings - while he couldn’t resolve the true nature of Saturn’s rings with the quality of his
telescope, Galileo observed a ‘triple form”
. Sunspots - Galileo observed and documented sunspots on the surface of the sun, suggesting that
the sun was not a perfect and unchanging celestial body

CONTROVERSY
- these findings, published in his influential work “ sidereus Nuncius’ (starry messenger), ignited both
awe and controversy across Europe.
- 1632, he published “dialogue concerning the two chief world systems”

JOHN RAY
Naturalist
- he introduced the concept of “species” as a distinct category of living organisms

CARL LINNAEUS
Biologist
- is known for developing the modern system of
-Taxonomic ranking system-
Species, geneus, family, order, class,phylum, kingdom,domain
Domain (eukarya)
Genus name is capital letter
Species name is small letter
Both names should be underlined or should be written in italic form

ANDREAS VESALIUS
Anatomist and physician
“De humani corporic fabrica”

WILLIAM HARVEY
Physician
Discovered and accurately described the circulation of blood

ISAAC NEWTON
Polymath
Laws of motion
1st law-a body in motion remains in motion or a body at rest remains at rest, unless acted upon by a
force
2nd law - force equals mass times acceleration: F=M*A
3rd law- fro every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

ABRAHAM MASLOW
Psychologist
Developed a hierarchy
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs -
Basic needs - biological physiological and safety
Psychological needs - love/belonging and esteem
Self fulfillment needs - self actualization

DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
-One of the most controversial intellectual revolutions

CHARLES DARWIN
Naturalist, biologist and geologist
- published his book, on the origin of the species.
. in this book, Darwin introduced the theory of evolution
-populations pass through a process of natural selection in which only the fittest would survive”
- he stated that organisms can adapt to their environment and would gradually change into
something that would be more competitive to survive, a process known as evolution.

SIGMUND FREUD
Neurologist
- In the past, the field of psychology was always classified under philosophy
- Philosophy was considered more of an art rather than a science.
- In the late 19th century, Sigmund Freud was able to change peoples perception of psychology with
his revolutionary theory of psychoanalysis.
. Study that explains human behavior
“In this theory, Freud explained that there are many conscious and unconscious factors that can
influence behavior and emotions.”

Id: instincts (represented our instinctual desires and needs) Ego: reality (making rational decisions)
Superego: morality (internalized moral standards)

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
STAGE AGES DESCRIPTIONS PROBLEMS/FIXATIONS
oral 0-1 Focus on oral activities- Addiction to smoking
sucking, tasting or eating-an oral
fixation
anal 1-3 Focus on controlling Anal retentive or anal
bowels/bladder(toilet expulsive
training)
phallic 3-6 Focus on genitals and Vanity, envy, passivity,
differences between confused identity
sexes
latent 6-puberty Peer/ social Critical stage to
relationships and develop social skills
gender roles and confidence
genital Puberty-adult Sexual desires and Transfer of fixations
urges directed toward from earlier stages
others