Surveying Engineering Dr.

Ali Jalil Chabuk Lecture 4

4. DISTANCES MEASUREMENT.
Distance measurement is generally regarded as the most fundamental of all
surveying observations. In traditional ground surveys, even though many angles may be
read, the length of at least one line must be measured to supplement the angles in
locating points. In-plane surveying, the distance between two points means the
horizontal distance. If the points are at different elevations, the distance is the horizontal
length between vertical lines at the points.
4.1 Methods of Measuring Distances.
In surveying, linear measurements have been obtained by many different
methods. These methods include:
a) Pacing: Pacing is a reasonably easy and quick method of measuring distance in the
field.
b) Theodolite Traversing – Stadia Tachometry.
c) Odometer readings (indicates the number of miles a vehicle has traveled).
d) A subtense bar (A subtense bar is a bar of known length, with targets at either end. It
is usually made of stable material, when used with a theodolite, it serves as a
quick and convenient method of measuring distances indirectly).
e) Optical rangefinders (An optical instrument for measuring distance, it is a device that
measures the distance from the observer to a target).
f) Photogrammetry (it uses photographs to create topographic maps).
g) Measuring Tape.
• Ordinary taping.
• Precise taping.
h) Electronic distance method device (EDM).
i) Satellite systems (A satellite system is a set of gravitationally bound objects in orbit
around a planetary-mass object or minor planet).
j) Other.
The most common methods for measuring distance in surveying today are taping,
EDM, and satellite systems.

4.2 Traditional Tools of Measuring the Horizontal Distances:

The essential tools used in measuring horizontal distance using measuring tape are:
a) Measuring tape.
There are many types of Measuring Tape are:

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Surveying Engineering Dr. Ali Jalil Chabuk Lecture 4
I. Woven tape.
The coefficient of thermal expansion for this type is high, where Woven tape is
affected by temperature and humidity. The results of measuring using Woven tape give a
high error.
II. Steel Tape.
The coefficient of thermal expansion for this type is acceptable. This type is used
in ordinary taping and precise taping.
III. Invar tape.
This type is made from an alloy of iron and copper. The coefficient of thermal
expansion for this type is low. Invar tape uses in measuring that needs high accuracy.

b) Ranging rod.
Ranging Rods are a surveying instrument that's used for marking the position of surveying
stations and sightings of those stations as well as for ranging straight lines.
5.imimg.com/data5/BA/ES/RS/SELLER-
2427214/ranging-...
indiamart.com

c) Iron Pins.
Iron Pins are used to fix the points on the ground.

Points
harnettsurvey.com

d) Plumb bob.
A plumb bob, or plummet, is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the bottom,
suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb line. It is used to
establish a vertical or horizontal datum.

Brass or Steel Plumb Bobs

popularmechanics.com

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Surveying Engineering Dr. Ali Jalil Chabuk Lecture 4
e) Surveying Arrow

f) Surveying Chains

g) Hand level.
The hand level is used to make the measuring tape to be level.
Levels – Spirit | Tools - Hand ...
blackwoods.com.au

Hand Levels | Spatial Technologies

spatialtechnologies.ca

4.3 Styles of Measuring Horizontal Distances Using Measuring Tape.

4.3.1 For Level Ground Surface.
The measuring style for the ground surface to be level can be seen in Figure 4.1.
In the measuring process, steel tape of 30m, range poles, and pins are used.

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Surveying Engineering Dr. Ali Jalil Chabuk Lecture 4
4.3.2 For Ripple/Unlevel Ground Surface.
a. For Ripple Ground Surface.
In this case, steel tape of 30m, plumb bob, and iron pins was used (Figure 4.2).
The plumb bob is used to obtain point A on the ripple ground surface to point B on the
other side of the surface, passing through point C, by the tape, and vice versa.

b. For Unlevel (Slopping) Ground Surface.

In this case, the same process is used, as shown in Figure 4.3.

4.4 Other Uses of The Tape.

In addition, to measure the horizontal distance between two points, there are many
applications in surveying that can be implemented using measuring tape such as:
Establishing a column on a straight line from a point on it.
Establishing a column on a straight line from a point located outside of it.
Measuring a horizontal angle.
Establishing a horizontal angle in a site.
Constructions survey.
Layout for the given plan of the building.
These applications can perform better when using developed instruments such as
theodolite and EDM.

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Surveying Engineering Dr. Ali Jalil Chabuk Lecture 4
4.5 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length between
two points, using phase changes, that occur as electromagnetic energy waves travel from one
end of the line to the other end.
The Swedish physicist Erik Bergstrand introduced the first EDM instrument in 1948.
In the current generation, EDM instruments are combined with digital theodolites and
microprocessors to produce total station instruments.
In certain situations, especially on construction projects, Reflectorless electronic
distance measurement (EDM) devices are replacing tape for measuring vertical distances on
construction sites (see Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4: Reflectorless

EDMs are being used to
measure elevation differences
in Construction applications.
(Reprinted with permission
from Leica Geosystems, Inc.)

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Surveying Engineering Dr. Ali Jalil Chabuk Lecture 4

5. Sources of Error in Taping.

There are three fundamental sources of error in taping.
1. Instruments errors. A tape may differ in actual length from its nominal graduated
length because of a defect in manufacture or repair.
2. Natural errors. The horizontal distance between end graduations of a tape varies
because of the effects of temperature, wind, and weight of the tape itself.
3. Personal errors. using tape incorrectly by persons, setting pins, reading the tape, or
manipulating the equipment.

5.1 Mistakes.
The important mistakes that happened during measuring the distances using tape are:
❖ Error reading the tape.
❖ Error writing the reading.
So, the measure should be repeated many times to find out the mistakes and remove
them. Also, getting accurate measurements.
5.2 Random Errors.
Random errors are always accrued during the measurements. These random errors are:
Incorrect reading.
Uncontrolled guidance.
Inaccuracy fixing for iron pins.
The tape is not horizontal.
The tape is not straight.
Inaccuracy of falling the tape on the ground surface, when using Plumb bob to
measure the unlevel or ripple ground surface.
5.3 Systematic Error.
a) Incorrect tape length.
b) Variation of temperature.
c) Variation in tension.
d) Sag.
a) Incorrect Tape Length.
The correction length can be determined as (4.1)
𝐥 − 𝐥′
CL = ( )L (4.1)
𝐥′
Where:
CL is the correction to be applied to the measured (recorded) length of a line to obtain true
length.
l is the actual tape length.
l' is the nominal tape length.

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Surveying Engineering Dr. Ali Jalil Chabuk Lecture 4
L is the measured (recorded) length of the line. Units for the terms in Equation (4.1) can be in
either feet or meters.
b) Variation of Temperature.
Steel tapes are standardized for 68°F (20°C) in the United States. A
temperature higher or lower than this value causes a change in length which must be
considered. The coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of steel used in
ordinary tapes is approximately 0.00000645 per unit length per degree Fahrenheit and
0.0000116 per unit length per degree Celsius. For any tape, the correction for
temperature can be computed as follow:
CT = k (T1 – T) L (4.2)
where,
CT is the correction in the length of a line caused by nonstandard temperature.
k is the coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of the tape.
T1 is the tape temperature at the time of measurement.
T is the tape temperature when it has a standard length.
L is the observed (recorded) length of the line.
c) Variation in Tension (Inconsistent Pull).
When a steel tape is pulled with a tension greater than its standard pull (the
tension at which it was calibrated), the tape will stretch and become longer than its
standard length. Conversely, if less than the standard pull is used, the tape will be shorter
than its standard length. The modulus of elasticity of the tape regulates the amount that it
stretches. The correction for pull can be computed and applied using the following
formula:
𝐋
CP = (𝐏𝟏 − 𝐏) (4.3)
𝐀𝐄
where,
In the English system
CP is the total elongation in tape length due to pulling, in feet units.
P1 is the pull applied to the tape at the time of the observation, in pounds (lb).
P is the standard pull for the tape, in pounds (lb).
A is the cross-sectional area of the tape, in square inches (in2).
E is the modulus of elasticity of steel, in pounds per square inch (lb/in2); and
L is the observed (recorded) length of the line feet (ft).
An average value of E for steel typically used in tapes and approximately 29,000,000 lb/in2.
In the metric system,
The correction CP in meters.
P and P1 are in kilograms (kg).
L is meters.

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Surveying Engineering Dr. Ali Jalil Chabuk Lecture 4
A is square centimeters (cm); and
E is kg/cm2 (an average value of E for steel in these units is approximately 2,000,000 kg/cm2.

d) Sag:
A steel tape that is not supported along its entire length sags in the form of a
catenary, a good example being the cable between two power poles. Because of sag, the
horizontal distance (chord length) is less than the graduated distance between tape ends.
Sag can be reduced by applying greater tension, but not eliminated unless the tape is
supported throughout. The following formula is used to compute the sag correction:
W2 L3S
CS = (4.4)
24 P21
Where:
In the English system
CS is the correction for sag, in feet.
LS is the unsupported length of the tape, in feet.
W is the weight of the tape per foot of length, in lb/ft.
P1 is the pull on the tape, in pounds (lb).
In metric system units
CS and LS, in meters.
LS is the unsupported length of the tape, in m.
W, in kg/m.
P1, in kg.

5.4 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem

In taping linear distances, several types of systematic errors often occur
simultaneously. The following examples illustrate procedures for computing and
applying corrections for the two basic types of problems, measurement, and layoff.