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Chapter 13
Geometric and
Surveying Data
Surveying is the science of either locating or
setting out points of interest on the Earth’s
surface. In the geological context this could be
locating drill holes or sampling points, as well
as setting out grid lines or collars of exploration
drill holes. Generally the survey starts from
points of known location close to the area of
interest. The starting points are usually referred
to as control points with their position defined
by either Map Grid of Australia (MGA94)
coordinates or local Mine Grid coordinates.
The equipment commonly used for this type of
surveying work can vary from a simple compass
and tape or a surveying total station to a GPS
system.
13.1. MINING COORDINATE
SYSTEMS – MGA94 AND
LOCAL GRID SYSTEMS
At most mining operations, open pit and
underground, it is the responsibility of the mine
surveyor to provide survey support for other
engineering teams. The survey support usually
includes the following activities:
•• providing survey control points across the
entire mine site,
•• connecting the survey control to the national
coordinate system (MGA94),
•• conducting all mine-site surveys,
•• producing and maintaining all surface and
underground maps,
•• managing and archiving all survey-related
data,
Chapter13.indd 363
•• managing land-ownership issues and lease
tenements,
•• monitoring slope stability and subsidence
effects due to mining operations, and
•• providing maps and spatial information to
other mining professionals such as geologists
and mining engineers.
There are currently (2011) at least three
states of Australia that have adopted specific
legislations that define minimal standards for
mine surveys and mapping requirements. These
states and legislations are:
•• Mining and Quarrying Safety and Health Act
1999, Section 58 (Queensland Government
1999);
•• Coal Mining Safety and Health Act 1999,
Section 67 (Queensland Government, 1999);
•• Mines Safety and Inspection Act 1994, Section
87 (Government of Western Australia, 1994);
•• Mine Health and Safety Act 2004 No 74,
Section 75 (New South Wales Government,
2004); and
•• Coal Mine Health and Safety Act 2002
No 129, Section 156 (New South Wales
Government, 2002).
The regulations for these acts require that
mine maps are referred to the national mapping
coordinate system and at least two or three
permanent survey monuments are established
at the mine property. The monuments should be
described and shown clearly on the mine maps
so that they can be found quickly and easily in
case of an emergency.
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
Mine maps are useful not only for determining
relative location but also for determining volumes
of ore and rock extracted, so that quantity
control can be exercised and royalty payments
calculated. Almost all mining engineering and
geology work depends on mine maps.
Mine coordinate and mapping systems
Adoption of a common system of coordinates
is essential for all mining operations. The mine
coordinate system makes it possible to:
•• accurately define the mining property for
legal purposes;
•• determine spatial positions among surveyed
features for production, as well as health and
safety purposes;
•• correlate surface features with underground
features for planning and design purposes;
and
•• correlate mine design with geology in order to
allow for economic extraction of an orebody.
Mine coordinates systems
The basic coordinate system for the entire Earth
is the geographic (geodetic) system of latitude
and longitude (Figure 13.1.1). Latitude is defined
as the angle phi (φ) along meridian, measured
north or south from the equatorial plane.
Longitude is the angle lambda (λ) measured
along the equator from the Greenwich meridian
east or west to any other meridian. These angles
are measured positively towards the north and
east or negatively to the south and west. In
order to represent objects located on the Earth’s
surface, or close to it, on a flat map a suitable
map projection system needs to be selected first.
The map projection allows for transformation
from the geographic coordinate system on the
datum surface (Earth’s surface) to a Cartesian
coordinate system on the projection surface
(map surface).
It is desirable that all mining and exploration
activities, in a given area, are presented on maps
using the same national coordinate system,
the Map Grid of Australia 94 (MGA94). This
minimises eventual problems associated with
mapping and marking of lease boundaries,
associated infrastructure and mineral deposits.
The MGA94 coordinate system is based on
the Transverse Mercator projection using the
Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 (GDA94).
The GDA94 system is an Earth centred ellipsoid
reference system that uses the International
364 Field Geologists’ Manual
Chapter13.indd 364
Figure 13.1.1
Latitude, longitude, height and cartesian
coordinates.




   




 
  

   






Terrestrial Reference Frame of 1992. The index
94 refers to the epoch year (1994) in which the
frame was projected.
The Mercator projection (Figure 13.1.2) uses
a cylindrical surface contacting the Earth at the
equator (therefore no distortion at the equator),
with its axis aligning with the rotational axis of
the Earth. Thus the meridians and parallels are
perpendicular, which is one of the characteristics
of conformal projections. The principal advantage
of a map utilising this projection is that directions
appear as straight lines (rhumb lines).
The Transverse Mercator projection is where
the axis of the cylindrical projection surface
is rotated by 90° (Figure 13.1.3) in relation
to the rotational axis of the Earth, so that the
intersection of the surface and the Earth is
aligned with a meridian. The points along this
meridian, referred to as the central meridian, are
projected without distortion. Therefore, as long
as the region to be mapped does not extend too
far in the east‐west direction (6° limit of mapping
zone), the map will provide a minimum of
distortion. To further reduce distortion the radius
of the projection cylinder is slightly reduced with
respect to the radius of the Earth, so it intersects
it along two section circles parallel to the plane of
central meridian. The points along these circles
project without distortion. The properties of
this projection system make it suitable for the
surveying of large areas and for linkage to the
universal system of coordinates as developed by
Mercator and later refined by Clarke in 1880.
The system of plane coordinates applied for
each zone of the GDA94 Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) projection (Figure 13.1.4)
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data

Figure 13.1.2
Mercator projection.

  
   

  
   

    

 
  

   
   

 
   
   !

Figure 13.1.3
Transverse Mercator projection.

       
          



         

     
 
 
!    

Figure 13.1.4 •• Northing is the south/north distance from

Standard arrangement of Universal Transverse the zero line of latitude or the equator. To
Mercator (UTM) coordinates. avoid negative numbers in the southern

   hemisphere a ‘false northing’ of 10 000 000 m
 
is assign to the equator.
  •• Zone number is a number assign to each of

 60 zones the Earth is divided into. Each zone
  is 6° wide with an additional 1/2° overlap.
 

The zones covering Australia extend from
"#    Zone 47 (central meridian of 99°E) to Zone

58 (central meridian of 165°E).
 
  •• Elevation is the distance or height above or
 below the mean sea level surface.
••


! Azimuth is a local horizontal angle measured

from the north direction.

comprises of northing and easting coordinates, World Geodetic System (WGS84)

zone number and elevation, which have the
following meanings:
•• Easting is the west/east distance from the
selected central meridian or line of longitude.
In order to avoid negative coordinates a ‘false
easting’ of 500 000 m is assigned to the
central meridian of each zone.
The World Geodetic System (WGS84) is both
an Earth centred ellipsoid reference system
and a plane coordinate projection system. The
WGS is maintained by the American Military
and is the reference system for their NAVSTAR
(Navigation System with Time and Ranging)
Global Positioning System (GPS). The ellipsoid

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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
parameters for GDA94 are the same as the
parameters used for the WGS84 but it uses a
different reference frame, the ITRF2000. This
means that the datum for either system only
differs by a small amount and the coordinates
are essentially the same. This is one of the
reasons why on 1 January 2000 the Australian
datum changed from the previous system, the
Australian Geodetic Datum1984 (AGD84), to the
Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 (GDA94).
The WGS plane coordinate system uses the
same 6° wide zones, numbered from one to
60 and the same projection datum with false
coordinates of 500 000E and 10 000 000N.
Projection from the spheroid to a
plane surface
Distortion will occur when projecting points
from a spheroidal surface, such as the spheroid
representing the Earth, onto a plane or cylindrical
surface. The Transverse Mercator projection
will distort in terms of areas and distances but
will maintain angles and bearings. In the case
of the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
projection the only places where lengths project
truly are two lines where the projection cylinder
intersects the spheroid (see Figure 13.1.5). The
simplified formulae for calculating a scale factor
for any line can be given as:
2 + El 2 # El 2 + El 2) /6r2
K = 0.9996 [1 + (El a a b b The difference between these two directions
where:
E′ = 500 000-E
Ea and Eb are the coordinates of the two end points
r = radius of the Earth at 34° Latitude =
6 370 087 m. This value is accurate up to
8 ppm at the equator
Figure 13.1.5
Point scale factors for distortion of distances from the spheroid to the projection plane for the MGA94.
1.000
SF=1
Meridian
996
Central M
SF = 0.99
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Chapter13.indd 366
In addition to correcting distances for the
scale factor, distances must also be corrected for
height above the ellipsoid. This has often been
referred to as a sea level correction. Because
the GDA94 reference system is Earth centred,
the ellipsoid of the best fit is separated from
the Australian Height Datum (AHD), which is
based on observations of the Mean sea level
along the Australian coastline. The ellipsoid is
approximately 35 m below AHD in the south
west of Australia and up to 70 m above AHD in
Australia’s northeast.
The corrected ellipsoid distance(s) can be
calculated by the approximate formulae:
Sab = dab R/R + h
where:
dab = measured distance
h = mean height above the ellipsoid – h =
(ha+hb)/2
R = radius of the Earth – 6 370 087 m at 34°
Latitude
Another significant distortion to consider is
the effect of meridian convergence in direction
calculations. The lines of meridians and the
central meridian are not parallel when projected
onto a plane or cylindrical surface, but curved.
A tangent to the meridian at any point will
indicate the direction of true north (or south).
This direction differs from the direction given by
the plane grid (except at the central meridian).
is called the meridian convergence (γ) and it
increases with distance from the central meridian
of the projection. In the northern and southern
hemispheres directions are measured clockwise
from the grid north, which is Cartesian north
and is different to the true or geographic north
(Figure 13.1.6).
30 30’ Longitude
g
Projection Plane
SF==1.000
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data

Figure 13.1.6 13.2. COORDINATE

Impact of meridian convergence on directions. TRANSFORMATION
 
There are a number of different coordinate
 
systems that can be used for exploration or

mining projects. In most cases, an existing mine

site will be based on a local Mine Grid (Flat
  

 Earth system), however, most Australian state
 legislations require connection to the Geodetic
   Datum of Australian (GDA94). In some cases

 
the initial exploration program will be based


 on MGA94 coordinates. In both situations
     it becomes necessary to transform a set of
   
    coordinates from one system to another.
  
 Generally, a local mine grid is based on a



selected datum point located in the stable area
 of the mine site and given an arbitrary set of
coordinates (Figure 13.2.1). In addition, this
local grid will have orientation based on a second
datum point also stabilised on the mine site. The
 direction of the orebody strike, magnetic north,
true north or any other direction that seems
The convergence can be calculated using the appropriate are used for orientation of the local
grid.
following approximate formula:
The most common coordinate systems used by
γradians = -tan(λ-λo ) ⋅ sinφ the mining industry from January 2000 onwards
are:
where:
λ = longitude of the point.
•• The Map Grid of Australia 94 (MGA94),
based on the Geodetic Datum of Australia
λ o = longitude of the central meridian for the 1994; and
MGA mapping zone •• Local Mine Grid, a plane grid system based
φ = latitude of the point on arbitrary coordinates and orientation.

Figure 13.2.1
Mine site datum definition.

  



  
   


 

 





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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
However, the mapping and surveying data or
information that precede January 2000 may be
based on other coordinate systems such as:
•• The Australian Map Grid 84 (AMG84) based
on the Australian Geodetic Datum 1984. This
coordinate system was the standard system
from 1984 till 1 January 2000 in Western
Australia, South Australia and Queensland
(Kirby, 2010). The coordinates of the same
point in the MGA94 system will vary from
AMG84 coordinates (Figure 13.2.2) by approx-
imately 200 m in a north-easterly direction.
Figure 13.2.2
Relationship between AMG84 Coordinate
system and the MGA94 Coordinate system.
© Commonwealth of Australia (Geoscience
Australia), 2011.
•• Australian Map Grid 66 (AMG66). This
system of coordinates replaced the individual
State based systems in 1966 and was used
until the introduction of the AMG84 system
in 1984, except New South Wales, Victoria
and Tasmania. These states continued to use
the AGD66 system until 1 January 2000.
•• Coordinate systems predating 1966 were
generally state or regional systems.
Given the number of coordinate systems in
existence, it is often a common requirement
to transform coordinates of a point from one
system to another. The mining or exploration
areas set up after 1 January 2000 will most likely
require the transformation between MGA94 and
the local Mine Grid system.
For small areas it is possible to use a two-
dimensional transformation (Figure 13.2.3)
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Chapter13.indd 368
Figure 13.2.3
Relationship between two coordinate systems.
N
θ
Stn B
EA
St A
Stn
E0
N0
NA
E
based on two points having coordinates in
both systems. The following parameters
are determined and then applied to convert
coordinates from one system to the other:
•• a rotation (θ) between the two systems,
•• a datum shift (N0, E0) from one system to the
other, and
•• a scale change (s) between the two systems.
This process gives rise to four transformation
parameters (Uren and Price, 2006) written as:
E0 N0 (translation parameters)
a = s cos(θ) b = s sin(θ) (rotation and scale parameters)
The relationship between coordinates, in both
primary and secondary systems, of two base
points can be expressed by the following four
equations:
e1 = E1a - N1b + E0
n1 = N1a + E1b + N0
e2 = E2a - N2b + E0
n2 = N2a + E2b + N0
The above equations can be used to solve for
the four transformation parameters a, b, E0 and
N0, which then can be used to convert any point
from the primary to the secondary coordinate
system.
Any transformation parameters calculated will
always be based on data from actual survey work
so any errors within either system will manifest
themselves in the calculated parameters. This
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data

means that the transformation parameters are
always going to be a ‘best fit’ only. Any small
errors in the transformation parameters resulting
from the two survey systems will increase as you
progresses out from the datum points used.
At least two points are required to calculate the
transformation parameters. It is a good practice
to calculate these parameters using the points
located outside of the subject area (Figure 13.2.4).
If more than two points, with dual coordinates,
are available, an accuracy check of the calculated
transformation parameters is possible.
Figure 13.2.4
Ideal transformation control point locations.
Transformation
Check Point
New Points in the
secondary coordinate
system
Transformation
Point 1
Transformation
Check Point
A two-dimensional transformation described
above can only be used over small areas of
approximately 5 km or less across when con-
verting MGA94 coordinates to local Mine Grid
Coordinates or vice versa. Over large areas this
type of transformation will not accurately model
the scale variations of the MGA94 projection onto
a Flat Earth system such as a local Mine Grid. In
addition the errors will increase as you move out
from the central meridian of your MGA zone
towards the zone boundaries. Another source of
error will be the height above the ellipsoid and
height variation across the transformation area.
In Table 13.2.1 a transformation area having
a uniform height over the area less than 370 m
above the ellipsoid and is within 50 km of the
central meridian will have an error of 0 ppm due
to the transformation parameters used. In the
case where the area in question ranges in height
between 145 m and 595 m the errors associated
with the transformation will be as much as
25 ppm.
The 2D transformation is only suitable for small
areas reasonably close to the central meridian. If
areas are large or high, transformation accuracy
is required, then other types of transformation
methods must be used. The most rigorous
and accurate transformation is the grid-to-
file transformation that can deliver accuracies
of between 0.02 m and 0.2 m. Information
regarding this type of transformation, software
and data-grid files can be obtained from the
Geoscience Australia web site.
Transformation example
A typical problem often arises in an existing
mining area with a local mine coordinate system
when GPS is used to locate or set out points in
terms of MGA94 coordinates. In this case it will
be necessary to define a set of transformation
parameters that will allow coordinates to be
transformed between both systems.
As discussed above, to determine transfor-
mation parameters for a simple two-dimensional
transformation at least two points with known
coordinates in both systems are required. It is
always a good survey practice to have at least
one more known point, with coordinates in both
systems, to check the accuracy of the calculated
transformation parameters.

TABLE 13.2.1
Approximate maximum relative errors, in parts per million (ppm), of a two-dimensional transformation based
on the distance from the central meridian and the range of ellipsoidal height over the transformation area1.

0 ppm 5 ppm 10 ppm 15 ppm 20 ppm 25 ppm

0 km 170 125 - 215 80 - 260 35 - 305 10 - 350 55 - 395
10 km 180 135 - 225 90 - 270 45 - 315 0 - 360 45 - 405
20 km 200 155 - 245 110 - 290 65 - 335 20 - 380 25 - 425
30 km 245 200 - 290 155 - 335 110 - 380 65 - 425 20 - 470
40 km 300 255 - 345 210 - 390 165 - 435 120 - 480 75 - 525
50 km 370 325 - 415 280 - 460 235 - 505 190 - 550 145 - 595

1. Table courtesy of Dr Michael Kuhn, Curtin University.

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TABLE 13.2.2
Coordinates of stations used to calculate the transformation parameters.

Station Emine Nmine EMGA NMGA

1 50000.000 125000.000 377990.614 6458835.443
2 51235.300 125000.000 379218.354 6458701.729
3 50684.385 125224.717 378695.153 6458984.707

The presented example shows the deter- The multiplication factor was calculated:
mination of the transformation parameters 133.714
required for recalculation of the GPS MGA94 multiplication value = = 0.108910681
1227.740
coordinates to the local Mine Grid coordinates.
Station 1 and station 2 are the original mine (2c) Both sides of Equation 6 are multiplied
datum stations that were set-up to establish by the above factor to obtain Equation 7:
a baseline, approximately in an east-west 0 × 0.108911 = 133.714 × 0.108911a - 1227.740 ×
direction, with the defined local bearing of 90°. 0.108911b 0 = 14.562883a - 133.714b (7)
Station 3 is another point on the site having both
MGA94 and local Mine Grid coordinates. (2d) Subtract Equation 7 from Equation 5
and solve for the variable a.
The objective of this exercise is to calculate the
transformation parameters needed to convert -1235.300 = -1227.740a - 133.714b (5)
the Local Grid coordinates to the MGA94
coordinates. Subtract 0 = 14.562883a - 133.714b (7)
Step 1 Set up the four transformation equations -1235.300 = -1242.302883a
using coordinates of station 1 and
station 2. - 1235.300
a= = 0.994362983
- 1242.302883
e1 = E1a - N1b + E0 ` 50000.000
= 377990.614a - 6458835.443b + E0 (1) Step 3 Use the value of variable a and Equation 5
or 6 to solve for variable b.
n1 = N1a + E1b + N0 ` 125000.000 =
6458835.443a + 377990.614b + N0 (2) -1235.300 = -1227.740a - 133.714b (5)

-1235.300 = -1227.740 × 0.994362982

e2 = E2a - N2b + E0 ` 51235.300
- 133.714b
= 379218.354a - 6458701.729b + E0 (3)

n2 = N2a + E2b + N0 ` 125000.000 = -1235.300 = 1220.819208 - 133.714b `

6458701.729a + 377990.614b + N0 (4) -14.480792 = -133.714b

Step 2 Resolve the above equations by elimina- - 14.480792

tion.
(2a) Subtract Equation 3 from Equation 1 and
Equation 4 from Equation 2 to reduce
the number of variables and equations:
-1235.300 = -1227.740a - 133.714b (5)
0 = 133.714a - 1227.740b (6)
(2b) Multiply Equation 6 by a real number
to make the coefficient of variable a or
the coefficient of variable b equal to the
corresponding coefficient in Equation 5.
In this case the coefficient of variable b
was selected to be the same in both
Equations 5 and 6.
b= = 0.10829675
- 133.714
Step 4 Solve variables (E0 ) and (N0 ) using
the calculated values of a and b. The
Equations 1 and 2 or the Equations 3
and 4 can be utilised. A good check of the
result is to use both sets of equations and
compare if the calculated values of E0 and
N0 from set 1 and 2 can be confirmed by
set 3 and 4.
e1 = E1a - N1b + E0 ` 50000.000 = 377990.614
× 0.994363 - 6458835.443 × 0.108297 + E0
E0 = 373611.013

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n1 = N1a + E1b + N0 ` 125000.000 = MGA94, the transformation equation needs to

6458835.443 × 0.994363 + 377990.614 × be rewritten and solved as in the above example.
0.108297 + N0 The list of equations will have the following
form:
N0 = -6338362.031
E1 = e1a = -n1b + e0
Step 5 Check the calculated transformation
parameters by using a third common
N1 = n1a + n1b + n0
point.
a = 0.994363 b = 0.108297 E2 = e2a -n2b + e0
Eo = 373611.013 No = -6338362.031
N2 = n2a + n2b + n0
e3 = E3a - N3b + E0 ` e3 = 378695.153a The parameters of the transformation are:
- 6458984.707b + E0
a = 0.993880
e3 = 378695.153 × 0.994363
- 6458984.707 × 0.108297 + 373611.013 b = – 0.108244
= 50684.403 eo = 314766.094

n3 = N3a + E3b + N0 ` n3 = 6458984.707a no = 6 340 012.647

+ 378695.153b + N0 θ = – 6° 12´ 56˝
(same rotation as above but opposite direction)
n3 = 6458984.707 × 0.994363 + 378695.153 ×
0.108297 + (-6338362.031) = 125224.722 S = – 0.99976
(scale factor should be 1/previously
e3 = 50684.403 calculated scale factor)
Mine grid point 3 (e3 = 50684.385, n3 =
n3 = 125224.722 125224.717) has the corresponding MGA94
coordinates:
Note: the calculated Mine Grid coordinates
of the third check point will always be slightly E3 = 378695.135
different from the surveyed coordinates due to
the small survey errors that exist in both sets of
coordinate. N3 = 6458984.704
The rotation of the mine grid from MGA94 can Note the small survey errors that exist in both
be determined as follows: coordinate networks.

i = tan - ` j = tan- c m
1 b 1 0.108297
a 0.994363 13.3. POSITIONING EQUIPMENT
AND TECHNIQUES
= tan- ^0.108911h = 6.215624c
1
Position of features and objects on the Earth
θ = 6° 12′ 56˝ surface can be determine by a variety of
methods and techniques utilising a whole range
The scale factor between MGA94 and the
of positioning instruments. Nowadays the
mine grid can be determined from the following
technique utilising the Global Navigation Satellite
relationship:
System (GNSS), also known as GPS, has become
a technique of choice for quick inexpensive and
S =` j = c cos (6c12l 56m ) m
a 0.994363
cos (i) relatively accurate positioning of points and
objects, where unobstructed visibility of sky with
=c m
0.994363
constellations of positioning satellites is possible.
0.994121 This technique can deliver accuracies from a few
metres (affordable hand-held GNSS receivers)
S = 1.000243
to a few millimetres (advanced surveying grade
To determine the transformation parameters units utilising carrier wave signals and special
for the reverse direction, local Mine Grid to error-cancellation techniques).

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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data

The classical surveying techniques, used Figure 13.3.1

for relative positioning based on angular Common hand-held GPS units.
and distance measurements, are still widely Iphone 4 GPS Garmin
utilised for control surveys and surveys in the Ashtek GPS
environments where GNSS signals are highly
Enabled GPS76
distorted or not available (urban environment,
tunnelling or underground mining).

GNSS based positioning

Global navigation satellite system (GNSS)
receivers are positioning devices that use
standard satellite navigation systems augmented
with other space or ground-based components
to achieve enhanced positioning accuracy.
The term GNSS is used for satellite navigation
systems that provide autonomous geo-spatial
positioning with global coverage. As of 2010,
the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning
System (GPS) is the only fully operational global
GNSS. The Russian GLONASS is in the process
of being restored to full operation. The full
operational status is expected by the end of 2011
(24 satellites and two to three spares). China has
indicated it will expand its regional BEIDOU
navigation system into the global COMPASS
navigation system by 2015. The European
Union’s Galileo positioning system is a GNSS in
its initial deployment phase. It is scheduled to be
operational (18 satellites in medium Earth orbit)
by 2015.
Absolute pseudo-range positioning
The modern GNSS systems use satellites
transmitting signals that contain information
about their positions and the times when
the signals were transmitted. The receiver
compares the time of broadcast encoded in the
transmission with the time of the reception
measured by the receiver’s internal clock.
This allows the determination of the so-called
‘pseudo-range’ to the satellite. If several such
measurements can be made at the same time to
different satellites of known position, a real-time
position of the receiver can be determined. This
is the method used by most cheap hand-held
GPS units (Figure 13.3.1).
The accuracy of this measuring technique is
affected by errors associated with the satellite
clocks, predicted ephemeris of each satellite,
ionosphere and troposphere delays and the
receiver. Due to these errors the accuracy of
absolute point positioning using Pseudo-Range
is approximately ±5 to 10 m RMS (root mean
square) for horizontal position. Theoretically this
means that 68 per cent of the time the absolute
position given by the GPS unit should be within
this range.
Differential positioning
The positional accuracy of a GPS unit can be
increased by augmenting the standard satellite
signals with other external information that
is integrated into the calculation process. One
of the widely used enhancement techniques is
called the differential global positioning system
(DGPS). It can use a single fixed station (base
station) or a network of fixed, ground-based
reference stations to broadcast a correction
to the second GPS unit known as the ‘rover’
(Figure 13.3.2). This correction is the difference
between the base station’s known position
and the position determined from a satellite
observation. This technique requires both the
base station receiver and the rover receiver to
observe the same satellites at the exact same
time (epoch). The corrections for position can be
either applied in post-processing or in real-time.
If applied in real-time the correction information
is transmitted from the reference station to the
receiver by a separate radio signal.
Figure 13.3.2
Differential GPS correction.
GPS Rover
Receiver
Survey Point
GPS Base
Station GPS Error
Receiver Correction
GPS
C t l PPoint
Control i t GPS Error Position
Correction
GPS
Position

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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
Carrier phase differential and real-time
kinematic
A technique allowing for the significant
enhancement of relative positioning accuracy
is the real-time kinematic (RTK) technique
utilising carrier-phase measurements. This type
of equipment is commonly used by surveyors
to achieve accuracies in position and height to
1 cm ± 2 parts-per-million (ppm) horizontally
and 2 cm ± 2 ppm vertically. The RTK system
typically consists of two or more GPS dual
or single frequency receivers (Figure 13.3.3),
equipped with radio modems. One receiver (base
station) is located at a control point of known
coordinates while the other receivers (or rovers)
are used to either locate or set out points to a
very high degree of accuracy. The initialisation
for carrier-phase RTK GPS surveying can take
a number of minutes as the two receivers, while
measuring a phase difference, have to determine
the number of whole wavelength cycles between
the satellite and the GPS receivers known as
the cycle ambiguity. Once the receivers have
been initialised the relative position of the rover
station can be determined, near instantaneously,
for any point using the correction information
broadcast by the base GPS receiver. The RTK
system requires a minimum of five satellites
visible at all times and should not be used for
distances of over 20 km from the base station. In
addition it should also be remembered that the
absolute position of any rover GPS determined
position is only as accurate as the known position
of the base station.
Figure 13.3.3
Sokkia 2700 dual frequency GPS RTK system.
Dual Frequency GPS Base
Station Configuration
Chapter13.indd 373
Omnistar DGPS system
The Omnistar DGPS system, owned and operated
by Fugro NV, is a commercially available GPS
correction system that provides submetre
accuracy to users anywhere in the world. The
world is divided up into a number of regions with
Australia, New Zealand and the Far East being
one such region.
Within each region there are a number of
permanent base stations (see Figure 13.3.4); there
are currently 12 in Australia. Each base station
receiver observes all visible GPS satellites that
are 5° or more above the horizon. A correction for
each set of observations is determined once every
second and then sent to the control station. The
correctional information from each base station
in the region, for the same epoch, is then collated
(packet), coded and uploaded to a Geostationary
satellite and rebroadcast across the region.
The user’s rover station receives the correctional
information packet via a radio modem. This
information is then decoded and processed by
an Omnistar enabled processor. The processor
software generates its own GPS correction for the
same epoch based on its position relative to the
Omnistar base stations within the region. This
correction is known as a Virtual Base Station
(VBS) solution. This information is then used by
the GPS receiver to calculate a corrected position.
The equipment required by the geologist or
surveyor in the field is an Omnistar enabled
single or dual frequency GPS Receiver and a radio
modem (Figure 13.3.5) with a unidirectional
aerial. In addition the user must subscribe to
Omnistar to be able to decode the satellite signal.
Dual Frequency RTK GPS
Rover
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data

Figure 13.3.4
OmniStar DGPS system.

GPS
GPS SATELLITES SIGNAL
GEOSTATIONARY
SATELLITE

GPS
SIGNAL RADIO
USER GPS
MODEM
ANTENNA
AERIAL

BASE OMISTAR BASE

OMNISTAR CONTROL STATION STATION
STATION LINKS

Figure 13.3.5
Omnistar configured GPS system – Sokkia GSR2650.

Hand Controller GPS and radio

Antenna

Sokkia GSR2650 LB Single

Equipment
Frequency GPS + Radio
p
Backpack
modem

13.4. CLASSICAL SURVEYING Any angles must be measured in horizontal or

EQUIPMENT AND
TECHNIQUES
In classical surveying, angles and distances
are measured to determine relative position
of points (control points), terrain features and
manufactured objects to calculate their position
in a selected coordinate system. They are then
presented in graphical form on a map. The
Cartesian coordinate system, used predominantly
to define the position of measured features, with
its X and Y axes placed on the horizontal plane
and pointing in the east and north directions
respectively and Z-axis pointing in the zenith
direction, imposes specific requirements on
angular and distance measurements that can
easily be utilised for the calculation of position.
vertical planes and distances should likewise also
be measured along horizontal or vertical lines. If
a distance is measured along a slope the angle
between the slope line and the horizontal plane
must also be determined.
For many years accurate measurements of
angles and distances posed a significant technical
challenge. However, with developments over the
past century, especially in disciplines of precise
mechanics, optics and recently in electronics, it
has led to the fabrication of surveying instruments
that are able to provide reliable angular and
distance measurements to a very high degree of
accuracy. The present standard instrumentation
can provide angular measurements with accuracy
greater than a single arc-second and distances of
±(1 mm + 2 ppm).

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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
The previous strict division between instru-
ments designed and made to measure angles
(theodolites) and instruments for distance
measurements such as tapes, subtense bars and
electronic distance measuring (EDM) devices
has blurred towards one universal instrument
(the ‘total station’) that is able to provide all these
measurements. Meanwhile, detail surveying also
went through a significant technological change.
Recent developments of laser scanners have led
to instrumentation able to provide reliable and
almost instant 3D models of the surrounding
terrain and objects. They also have great
applications in underground mine surveying
where they can provide cavity extent and volume.
Classical surveying techniques
Of the classical positioning techniques used in
open pit and underground mine surveying the
following can be listed:
•• Triangulation – a technique where a system
of triangles or quadrilaterals linking the
surveying points, is established. Quadrilaterals
are preferred structure, as they provide much
stronger geometrical network. The triangles
should have their angles as close as possible
to 60° but no less than 30° and no more than
120°. The highly accurate angular surveys (of
horizontal angles) are performed at all corners
of the triangles and quadrilaterals. All angles
(internal and external) are measured at each
station allowing for the ultimate check (they
must sum to 360°). The total error of this
sum should not be greater than the standard
error of a single angular measurement (about
±5˝) multiplied by the square root of the
number of angles measured. The distance
(base) must also be measured with great
care and accuracy. The measured baseline
and angles allow for the determination of the
relative position of all survey points linked by
the chains of triangles. This technique was
previously used to a large extent for geodetic
surveys focusing on the provision of reference
benchmarks for local detailed surveys. The
distances between survey points can vary
from tens of kilometres (as in a national
geodetic network) to single kilometres for
local networks. Today this type of surveying
over very long distances has been mostly
replaced by high accuracy GNSS surveying.
This technique is still used to establish small
scale mine primary control networks and to
check the positioning obtained by the GNSS
method.
Chapter13.indd 375
•• Trilateration – a technique similar to trian-
gulation where the angular measurements are
replaced by the distances measured between
vertices of triangles or quadrilaterals forming
the network. As the slope distances are usually
determined, the vertical angles (allowing for
a reduction to horizontal distances) must also
be determined.
•• Traversing – a technique involving the
measurements of horizontal angles and
horizontal distances (or slope distances with
slope angles) of consecutive survey points to
calculate the position of each. This type of
survey technique is generally associated with
control required for long narrow development
areas such as roads and railways.
•• Free positioning (resection) – a technique
where the position of a single point (bench-
mark) is achieved by measuring the distances
or angles to the surrounding points of known
positions. Minimum two distances or two
angles must be measured. To strengthen the
position of the measured point, the distance
and angular surveys should be performed.
•• Levelling – a technique concerned only with
the vertical positioning of survey points
(levelling benchmarks). It may involve:
differential levelling where the vertical
distances are determined between horizontal
plane (collimation plane) and surveyed
benchmarks; trigonometric levelling where
the vertical distances are determined as a
function of a slope (or horizontal) distance
and a vertical angle. The vertical position of
the benchmark can also be determined using
GPS or from barometric measurements.
However, these techniques provide much
lower accuracies and are not utilised in
engineering surveys.
The schematics of the basic surveying
techniques are presented in Figure 13.4.1.
In any positioning activities, it has to be
remembered that the minimum number of
measured geometrical elements has to be
equal or greater than the number of positional
variables (coordinates) that are determined.
For example, to determine two horizontal
coordinates (Northing and Easting) of a new
control point, a distance and an angle or two
angles or two distances must be measured from
control points with known positions. If the
number of measured elements is greater than
the number of determined positional variables
then redundant results are created that should
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
Figure 13.4.1
The basic positioning techniques.
lead to adjustment procedures. Such adjustment
determines the most probable position of the
new benchmark, but also the accuracy of this
position, which therefore defines quality of the
survey performed.
Definitions of measured geometric
elements
The definitions presented below are simplified in
most instances to stay within the scope of plane
surveying (surveying that does not take into
account the curvature of the Earth’s surface).
Direction – is the angular relationship of one
line to another measured in horizontal or vertical
plane. The reference line acts as the zero value
and the direction shows the amount of change
from this line. A horizontal direction can be
observed in two ways, clockwise or counter-
clockwise.
Azimuth – is a horizontal angle measured
clockwise from the reference line pointing north.
The value of azimuth can be in the range of 0°
to 360°.
Bearing – is a horizontal angle generally
measured from the north in a clockwise direction.
The reference line (zero azimuth) can be based
on true north, grid north, magnetic north or
assumed north.
376 Field Geologists’ Manual
Chapter13.indd 376
True north is the direction along the Earth’s
surface towards the geographic North Pole as
defined by the World Geodetic System (latest
revision: WGS84).
Grid north is the direction northwards along
the grid lines of a map projection used for
presentation of survey data.
Magnetic north is the direction of the local
magnetic field. The angle between the local
magnetic field (the direction the north end of a
compass points) and the true north is defined as
the magnetic declination.
Horizontal angle – is defined as the difference
in the values of two directions observed from
the same vantage point and projected on the
horizontal plane. The directions to several
features may be observed from one instrument
set-up (triangulation), or the directions as they
change over a series of continuous lines (traverse)
can be determined. To distinguish the different
ways the angles are observed in a traverse
(Figure 13.4.2) they can be named as station
angles (α0), explement angles (β0), or deflection
angles (γ0). The terms of right (β0) and left (α0)
angles (on the left or right side of a traverse
run) or clockwise and counter-clockwise angles
(measured clockwise or counter-clockwise from
the back sight) are also used. In triangulation,
only the differences in directions are observed
and used as angles in the computations.
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
Figure 13.4.2
Survey traverse.









 

 
 

Measurement of angles at an instrument
station – when a baseline between two points
of known position exists the survey starts from
one of these points (point B in Figure 13.4.2).
The instrument (theodolite) is set up at the
point B, and back-sighted on the point A as the
starting (zero) direction. The angle is turned to
point 1, the end point of the new traverse leg.
The angle normally is turned and read clockwise
(left angle). This angle (α0) is referred to as the
station angle. Generally, surveys require at least
one direct and one reverse sighting on each
station to observe the angle. A direct sighting is
made with the telescope in the direct position
(vertical circle on the left side of alidade). Then
a reverse sighting is made with the telescope in
the reverse position (plunged) from the direct
position (vertical circle on the right side of
alidade). The angle is calculated as the difference
between average readings of both sightings.
The direct and reverse sightings are made to
eliminate the collimation and other instrumental
errors. For accurate traverse measurements the
explement angle (counter clockwise or right) is
also determined. The sum of the station angle
and the explement angle should equal 360°. If a
difference exists it is distributed equally between
both angles.
Interior and exterior angles – some surveys
follow around a figure, and close or tie in to the
starting point. The angles, which are inside the
figure, may be referred to as the interior angles,
while the angles outside the figure are called
exterior angles.
Vertical angle – it is defined as an angle
between the horizontal plane and a measured
direction in the vertical plane passing through
this direction. The zenith angle is the angle
Chapter13.indd 377








between the zenith direction and the measured
direction. In most instruments the vertical
circle (the one associated with the horizontal
axis) should read 90° (100 grad) when the sight
axis is horizontal, or 270° (300 grad) when the
telescope is in its second position, that is, ‘turned
over’ or ‘plunged’.
Distance – can be measured by comparison
with length of measuring device (eg tape or
electronically). If the starting and ending points
are at different levels (slope distance), it should
be projected on the horizontal plane producing a
horizontal distance or on a vertical line producing
a vertical distance representing a difference in
elevation. Differences in the elevation of points
(vertical distances) can be determined directly by
using specialised instruments (levels and survey
staffs).
Instrumentation – theodolite and total
station
The measurement and setting of horizontal and
vertical angles is an important part of surveying.
The theodolite serves both these functions.
A modern theodolite consists of the following
main components (Figure 13.4.3):
•• A movable telescope within two perpendicular
axes, the horizontal or trunnion axis mounted
on standards that are set on the main plate that
can rotate around the vertical axis. This whole
assembly (telescope, standards, central plate
and levelling bubble) is called the alidade.
When the telescope is pointed at a desired
target, the positional direction of each of these
axes can be measured with great precision,
typically of arc-seconds. The horizontal and
vertical axes of a theodolite must be mutually
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
Figure 13.4.3
Electronic theodolite (total station) (A) and its
diagram (B).
perpendicular. The condition where they
deviate from perpendicularity and the amount
by which they do is referred to as ‘horizontal
axis error’. The optical centre of the objective
and the centre of the cross-hairs in its focal
plane define the optical axis of the telescope,
called the ‘sight axis’. It must be perpendicular
to the horizontal axis. Any deviation from
perpendicularity is defined as the ‘collimation
error’.
•• Graduated circles (horizontal and vertical)
that can be read out through magnifying
lenses/microscopes or electronically. The
vertical circle (the one associated with the
horizontal axis) should read 90° (100 grad)
when the sight axis is horizontal, or 270°
(300 grad) when it is in its second position,
the telescope is ‘turned over’ or ‘plunged’.
Half of the difference between the two
positions is called the ‘index error’.
•• Tribrach or base, a forced centring plate
containing three thumbscrews, a plumb bob
or optical or laser plummet and spirit level
for rapid levelling and centring over or under
a survey station.
•• Tripod or legs, which are used for setting the
theodolite at a good working height. Wing
nuts on the head must be tightened when
the instrument is in position to remove any
slackness, which will lead to instability.
In modern theodolites, reading of the
horizontal and vertical circles is done electron-
ically. Readout is achieved by a rotary encoder,
which can be absolute, eg using Gray codes,
or incremental, using equidistant light and
dark radial bands. In the latter case the circles
spin rapidly, reducing angle measurement to
378 Field Geologists’ Manual
Chapter13.indd 378
electronic measurement of time differences.
In the recent models CCD sensors have been
added to the focal plane of the telescope,
allowing both auto-targeting and the automated
measurement of residual target offset. All
this is implemented in embedded software.
Many modern theodolites are equipped with
integrated electro-optical distance measuring
devices, generally infrared based, allowing the
measurement of the complete three-dimensional
vectors (in instrument-defined polar coordinates)
which then can be transformed to a user
coordinate system. If at least three of such vectors
are measured to the existing control points a
resection solution or free station positioning can
be utilised to determine the position of the survey
station. These ‘intelligent theodolites’ are called
self-registering tacheometers or ‘total stations’,
perform the necessary operations, saving data
into internal registering units, or into external
data storage devices. Typically, ruggedised
laptops or personal digital assistant (PDA) are
used as data collectors for this purpose.
Use of theodolite (total station)
Instrument requirements
The main purpose of a theodolite is to measure
angles in the horizontal and vertical planes.
Total stations equipped with electronic distance
meter (EDM) can also determine slope distances
between the centre of the instrument and the
target point. To convert measurements from
the instrument’s internal (radial coordinate)
system to the world Cartesian coordinate system
the instrument components must adhere to the
following rules:
•• The axis of the plate bubble must be normal
to the vertical axis, and vertical axis must be
truly vertical.
•• The line of sight must be normal to the
horizontal axis.
•• The horizontal axis must be normal to the
vertical axis, and truly horizontal.
•• The index of the vertical circle must be set so
that when the vertical circle bubble is central
the index will mark the true vertical angle on
the vertical circle scale. This applies also to
new instruments with auto levelling vertical
index.
There are theodolite tests, which can be
applied to check that the above relationships
are maintained. These tests and the related
instrument adjustments apply to all classical
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
opto-mechanical theodolites. The instrumental
errors of modern electronic theodolites and total
stations are determined at the initial stage of
surveys (during instrument set-up procedure)
and then the required corrections are calculated
and applied to the surveying results. Mechanical
adjustments are only required if the instrumental
errors exceed the allowed thresholds. Specialised
service personnel should test the modern
theodolites regularly and if adjustments are
required they should be sent back to the factory.
Procedure of angular measurements
The angle measurement with a theodolite or a
total station involves the following steps:
Step 1 Setting up the instrument and targets
over/under a specific point.
The instrument must be set exactly above or
below a survey mark and its base plate must
be levelled. To achieve this, initially the legs of
the tripod are extended to match the height of
observer and the tripod itself is set approximately
above/below the point. The accuracy of this initial
set-up can be improved by means of plumb bob
or a small pebble dropped from under the tripod
head. The tribrach is then placed on the tripod
head and attached by means of the central screw.
As the modern tribrach is usually equipped with
an optical or laser plummet, accurate centring
can be performed.
If centring above a point the following
technique can significantly speed up the process:
•• using the levelling screws of the tribrach
sight the cross hair (marker) of the optical
plummet at the centre of survey mark;
•• by extending or contracting the tripod legs
bring the tribrach (bubble) level to its central
position;
•• check if the plummet is still pointing at the
centre of survey mark; if it is slightly off,
loose the central screw and slide the tribrach
radially, (without turning), to position it
exactly over the survey point; and
•• check if the tribrach is levelled, tight the
central screw and fix the position of the
tribrach.
After setting and levelling the tribrach the
instrument is inserted into it and fixed with the
locking screw. The levelling of the instrument
should be checked again and corrected if required.
Accurate levelling is done with the level attached
to the instrument base plate. Modern electronic
instruments are equipped with electronic levels,
which should be used during the final stage of
Chapter13.indd 379
the set-up procedure. After turning the electronic
instrument on, it will lead the operator through
the levelling process and the determination of
the vertical circle index error procedures.
The above procedure cannot be utilised when
centring under a point. If this is the case a plumb
bob is hung from the point slightly higher than
the expected top of the instrument. Tripod,
tribrach and instrument are set and levelled
under the plumb bob. The telescope is set to the
horizontal position with the mark representing
the vertical axis of the instrument facing upright.
The length of the plumb bob is adjusted, so its
point comes close to the telescope mark. Then the
central screw is loosed and the whole assembly is
shifted radially as necessary to bring the vertical
axis of the instrument directly under the point
of the bob. A slight adjustment of level may be
necessary. To set up under a point located in the
high backs (roof) an optical or laser plummet
pointing upward is utilised. Such a plummet is
usually in the form of a special implement that
can be inserted directly into the tribrach.
The procedure for setting the target is very
similar, except that instead of an instrument a
target assembly is inserted into the tribrach.
Step 2 Setting up the job and data recording
details (this applies only to modern
electronic theodolites and total stations
with data recording capabilities and is
specific to instrument type and manufac-
turer).
Step 3 Determining the height of the instrument
(HI) and the station (HS).
The height of the instrument (HI) is measured
with a tape or from the face of a survey mark to
the marker at one of the standards. The height
of the station (HS) measured from the face of a
survey mark to the centre of the target plate or
the centre of retro-reflector. These values are
positive if the instrument or targets are above the
stations, and negative if below.
Step 4 Sighting the targets and recording survey
results.
Before sighting targets it must be ensured that
the condition of parallax does not exist. For the
instrument telescope to operate correctly the
image of the target must be created exactly in
the plane of the diaphragm with the engraved
cross hairs. The eyepiece must also be adjusted,
so its focal point is also in the plane of the
diaphragm. Failure to achieve these conditions
is call parallax. Parallax can be detected by
slight sideways movement of the observer’s eye
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
when observing target. If the image of the target
moves against the cross-hair, then parallax
exists. To remove parallax, the eyepiece must be
first adjusted to bring the cross hair into sharp
focus. It is advisable to sight onto a wall with
a light background or a sheet of paper placed
in the front of the telescope when performing
this adjustment. When the cross-hair is sharply
visible through the eyepiece then the target is
focused with the focusing screw. Any residual
parallax can be detected by slight movement of
the observer’s eye left or right, up or down, and
checking whether the cross-hair moves with
respect to the target. Failure to eliminate parallax
can cause errors. After parallax is eliminated the
targets set over or under the back-sight (BS),
and for-sight (FS) surveying points are sighted
and the reading of directions are recorded. This
can be done by copying the results displayed on
the instrument’s display panel to a field book or
simply by recording these values electronically
in the instrument’s memory card. To eliminate
instrumental errors, all sightings are performed
in two positions of telescope (Circle Right (CR)
and Circle Left (CL)). It is also customary, but
not required, that the initial back-sight direction
is set to a value of 0°00′00˝.
Distance measurements
Modern total stations are equipped with
electronic distance meters (EDM) that allow for
the accurate measurement of distances between
the instrument and the targets. The EDM is co-
axially mounted in the instrument telescope
thereby allowing for direct application of the
measured vertical angle when correcting the
measured distance for horizontal and vertical
projection.
The horizontal distance (dh) can easily be
calculated using the following formula:
dh = ds ∙ cos (Vz )
where:
dS = the slope distance measured by EDM
VZ = the zenith angle read directly from an
instrument
Coordinate and traverse calculations
and adjustments (non-rigorous)
The coordinates of the consecutive traverse
points are calculated on the basis of coordinates
of previous station and measured angle and
distance to the next station (Figure 13.4.3).
The measured angle allows for the calculation
380 Field Geologists’ Manual
Chapter13.indd 380
of the direction (azimuth) to the next station.
Knowing the direction (azimuth) allows the
distance coordinates (northing and easting) to
be calculated using the following formulas:
Ni + 1 = Ni + di+1 ∙ cos (Ai) and
Ei + 1 = Ei + di+1 ∙ sin (Ai)
where:
Ai = Ai-1 + αi - 180° or Ai = Ai-1 - βi - 180°
αi = left (clockwise) angle at station i
βi = right (anticlockwise) angle at station i
For closed traverses, the sum of the measured
angles, as well as, the differences between the
starting and ending coordinates are known.
The sum of the internal angles of a polygon
(closed-looped traverse) with (n) stations is
given by the rule:
n
/ ai = (n - 2) $ 180c
i =1
For a traverse with (n) stations starting from
the base of known azimuth (A0) and ending at the
base with azimuth (AK), the sum of angles can be
calculated from the following rules:
n
/ ai = Ak - A0 + n $ 180c
i =1
(for left-hand angles)
n
/ bi = A0 - AK + n $ 180c
i =1
(for right-hand angles)
Any deviation from the above sums is
known as the angular misclosure and must be
eliminated, either through adjustment (if it is
less than allowable amount) or by repeating
the observations. In most cases, the angular
misclosure should not be greater than: 20m $ n ;
where n represents number of measured angles.
The angular misclosure is distributed equally
among all measured angles as the first step in
traverse adjustment.
A traverse that starts and ends on the same
station should have the total change in position
equal to zero. For a traverse that starts and
finishes on stations with known positions, the
sum of the northing and easting displacements
should be equal the known displacements
between these stations. The difference between
the expected position of the end point and
its calculated position, is defined as linear
misclosure. If the linear misclosure is acceptable
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
(less than the allowable misclosure for the specific
type of surveys), then it can be adjusted, but if the
misclosure is too large, than the fieldwork should
be repeated. In most cases, the linear misclosure
should be less than 1/5000 of the traverse length.
A Bowditch adjustment method distributes the
linear misclosure proportionally to the length
of each traverse side. The corrections applied to
each side can be calculated from the following
expression:
Length of side
TN Correction = $ N Misclosure
Length of traverse
Length of side
TE Correction = $ E Misclosure
Length of traverse
The calculated corrections are subtracted
from the originally computed ∆N and ∆E of each
traverse side.
Adjustments of levelling
Similarly like triangulations or traverses, the
levelling runs must also be checked for misclosure
and adjusted. The close-loop levelling run should
have a difference in elevation equal to zero, while
for runs between two known benchmarks, the
difference can be calculated from elevations of
these benchmarks. In most cases, the levelling
misclosure should be less than: 20 $ L mm;
where L is the length of levelling run in (km).
The levelling misclosure is distributed
proportionally to the length of each leg of the
levelling run, or equally among all level stations.
Topographic surveys
Detailed topographical surveys are focused on
the collection of terrain features, edges and
gradients of roads, ditches and water dams,
Figure 13.4.4
Sokkia total station showing control panel.
S kki 530R
Sokkia
Total Station
Total Station Control Panel
Chapter13.indd 381
waste damps, power lines, buildings and other
permanent or temporary structures. The
contemporary surveyor may utilise the whole
range of surveying methods including: total
station surveys, GPS surveys, aerial mapping and
laser scanning.
Total station surveys
Total station (Figure 13.4.4) surveying allows
the accurate determination of directions and
distances to measured points and calculation
of their positions using the radiating method.
The surveyed data is stored initially in the
instrument’s solid-state memory and then
downloaded to an office computer. The use of
application software allows the coordinates of
measured points to be calculated and a map of
the surveyed area to be generated. Traditionally,
the surveyor would sight an instrument on
a reflector that is positioned by the assistant
at various points of interest. This involves a
significant risk of falling down the slope or being
struck by falling rocks. The new generation of
‘reflectorless’ total stations (Figure 13.4.5) do not
require reflectors and can measure distances to
almost any object up to several hundred metres
away. Some total stations can be combined with
GNSS receivers (eg Leica Smart Station) that
allow for rapid station positioning. This technique
can be utilized when a total station cannot be
set directly over a mine control network point,
however, it should only be used in exceptional
occasions when a rapid survey is required. The
obtained results must later be checked or linked
back to the mine control network.
The radiating survey method, using total
stations, is employed when the horizontal and
vertical positions of topographic details must
be simultaneously determined. It is especially
useful in an open pit mine where the positions
Prism
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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data

Figure 13.4.5
Typical survey by ‘total station’ located at a mining bench.

of benches, slopes and roads, with significant
differences in elevations, must be determined.
Figure 13.4.5 represents a typical total station
survey.
13.5. CLASSICAL TACHYMETRY
(STADIA) SURVEYS
As presented previously, the modern total station
instrument is able to deliver high accuracy
angular and distance measurements to reflectors
positioned at target points or even to ordinary
objects with relatively low surface reflectivity.
However, for compatibility and backup purposes
the telescopes of most of these instruments are
still equipped with a reticule (cross-hairs) that
allows for classical stadia surveying. The typical
The optical system of a surveying instrument
is constructed in such a way that the distance
between horizontal stadia lines (upper and
lower) is 1/100 of the telescope focal length.
This means that if a telescope is pointed to a
vertical staff (Figure 13.5.2) a stadia distance(s),
the distance between the upper and lower stadia
hairs, is multiplied by a factor of 100. From the
readings of the top, middle and bottom wires it
is possible to calculate the horizontal distance
using the following equations:
Figure 13.5.2
Geometry of stadia survey.


configuration of stadia reticule is presented in


Figure 13.5.1.
Figure 13.5.1

Stadia lines intercepting a vertical metric staff.



 

Distance equation:

Dh = Cs ∙ cos2 (V)
where:
C = 100 – a multiplying constant used for most
instruments
Dh = horizontal distance
s = stadia distance read from staff (difference
between interceptions of stadia lines)
V = vertical angle

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Difference in elevation: be determined with the help of the Geoscience’s

TH = HI + ` Cs # sin 2V j - T
1 web page (http://www.ga.gov.au/oracle/geomag/
2 agrfform.jsp). To determine the true north
where:
ΔH = difference in elevation between the station
point and the target point
HI = height of instrument
T = height of target (reading of central horiz-
ontal cross-hair)
13.6. COMPASS AND TAPE
TRAVERSES
For the location of points of interest for mapping
purposes or the set out of grid lines where high
orders of accuracy are not required, it may be
quite appropriate to use a compass, tape and
inclinometer. This method of low accuracy
surveying can still provide relative positioning
accuracy greater than a hand-held GPS unit, using
pseudo-range measurements, and characterised
by RMS of horizontal position in the range of
±5 to 10 m.
Compass direction and corrections
A compass provides directions in terms of
the Earth’s magnetic field. However, for most
mapping and surveying purposes directions need
to be in terms of either true north or grid (map)
north.
The difference between true north and
magnetic north is called magnetic variation (or
magnetic declination). This difference will vary
from place to place and from year to year. It can
Australian Geomagnetic Reference Field Values
(azimuth) bearing from a measured magnetic
bearing the calculated magnetic variation is added
when magnetic north is east of true north and
subtracted when it is west of true north.
When using a plane coordinate mapping
system, it is also necessary to convert bearings
from true bearings to grid bearings and vice
versa. This correction is called grid convergence
and varies from 0° on the zone’s central meridian
to 2° or more as the edge of the mapping grid
zone is approached (Figure 13.6.1).
The grid convergence can be either read from
a map of the area or calculated. Generally a
convergence value listed on a map is calculated
for the central point of the map and is applied
over the whole map.
The convergence can be calculated using the
latitude and longitude of a point within the survey
area. The approximate formulae for convergence
using latitude and longitude is as follows:
γradians = -tan(λ-λo )sinφ
where:
λ longitude of a point
λ o longitude of the central meridian for the
MGA mapping zone
φ latitude of a point
Example
A point having a longitude of 115° 30´ 20˝ E and
latitude of 31° 30´ 10˝ S is to be used to determine

Figure 13.6.1
Relationship between grid convergence and true north.
Grid North
Meridian
Grid North
Meridian
th

rth
Nor

No
e
True

Tru

Typical field compass

γ γ
Central Meridian

Grid Convergence γ
West of Central Meridian - add convergence (γ) to Grid North for True North
East of Central Meridian - subtract convergence (γ) from Grid North for True North

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Grid North
h
Answer
GN = 120 0 0’ 0”

G
γ = + 00 46’ 52”
MV = ‐(‐ 10 36’ 58”)
MB = 1220 23
23’ 50
50” (magnetic bearing)

the magnetic bearing of a line to be set out on a ntral Meridian

Cento perform such convergence. The tool’s URL
grid bearing of 120°. is: http://www.ga.gov.au/geodesy/datums/
redfearn_geo_to_grid.jsp
λ = 115° 30´ 20˝ Central meridian λo = 117°
Zone 50 Easting = 358077.934
φ = -31° 30´ 10˝
Northing = 6513708.190
Convergence γradians = -tan(λ-λo )sinφ
Convergence = – 0° 46´ 52˝ (GN west of TN)
γradians = -tan(115° 30´ 20˝ -117°)
The accuracy of a high quality hand-held
*sin -31° 30´ 10˝ 1 % . This equates
compass is approximately ! 2
γradians = -0.013632radians to a traverse error in direction of 0.8 m per 100
m. This is considerably more accurate than the
180 relative position of two points determined by a
γDEG = -0.013632 × = 0.7739°
r hand-held GPS unit.
= -0° 46´ 52˝
Magnetic variation for 115° 30´ 10˝ using http: Measuring distances with a tape
//www.ga.gov.au/oracle/geomag/agrfform.jsp If access to a modern electronic total station is
not available, a cheaper option for measuring
MV = -1.616° = -1° 36′ 58 (west)
distances is to use some type of measuring tape
The meridian convergence at any point can (Figure 13.6.2). These measuring tapes can
be obtained when converting geographical typically vary from 20 m to 100 m in length and
coordinates of a point to its MGA94 coordinates. are constructed from either steel, plastic coated
The Geoscience’s web site provides online tools steel, fibreglass or cloth. For long tapes of high

Figure 13.6.2
Measuring tapes and clinometers.

100 m steel tape 100 m fibreglass tape Clinometer

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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data

Figure 13.6.3
Reduction of slope distance to horizontal distance.

nce (VD)
HD = SD # Cos (i)

Vertiical Distan
SD = HD θ
Cos(i)
VD = SD # Sin (i) Horizontal Distance (HS)

accuracy it is common to use steel or plastic Grid Spacing 50m X 50m

coated steel. The reason for this is that they do
not stretch appreciably under tension and are
longer wearing.
Distances are generally measured by stretching
the tape out along the ground (if clear) or at some
height clear of any vegetation or obstructions.
In the majority of cases the distance will be
measured as a slope distance rather than as the Grid Datum
required horizontal distance. This means that a Zone 52
vertical angle measurement between the two end 625500 E
points has to be observed. This vertical angle can 7345100 N
then be used to reduce a measured slope distance
to a horizontal distance or convert a horizontal Step 1 Calculate the Latitude and Longitude of
distance to a slope distance to be used for the set the point using the program available
out of a point. from the Geoscience Australia web
The corrections can either be obtained from site (http://www.ga.gov.au/geodesy/
datums/redfearn_grid_to_geo.jsp).
a suitable set of tables or calculation using the
following formulae.
GDA Redfearn calculation results (grid to
geographic)
Distance reduction example Site name Grid Datum
GDA-MGA (UTM with GRS80 ellipsoid)
Slope distance (SD) = 100 m
Zone 52
Slope angle θ = + 4° Easting 625500.000
Northing 7345100.000
HD = SD × cos(θ) = 100 × cos(4) = 99.756
Latitude -24° 0' 4.02428''

VD = SD × sin(θ) = 100 × sin(4°) = 6.975 Longitude 130° 14' 1.80123''

Grid convergence 0° 30' 6.96''
SD = HD/cos(θ) = 99.756/cos(4°) = 100 Point scale 0.99979454

Notice that this program also gives you the grid

Compass and tape example
The following example is a situation where a grid
is to be set out to a reasonable accuracy using
a hand-held GPS, compass and tape. In this
situation it is more accurate to use the GPS unit
to determine the position of a central point, to an
accuracy of ±5 m to 10 m, and use the compass
and tape to set out or locate points of interest.
convergence.
Step 2 Calculate the magnetic variation from
the Geoscience Australia web site
(http://www.ga.gov.au/oracle/geomag/
agrfform.jsp).
Magnetic variation = 4° 9' – The value given is
positive so magnetic north lies to the east of true
north.

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Step 3 Calculate the magnetic bearing to set out Figure 13.7.1

the grid lines along grid north (0°) and Intersection of two planes.
grid east (90°).




Grrid North


Meridian
  


 
27o

M
  

ntral Meridian – 12




 

Cen

 



Magnetic bearing = grid bearing - grid
convergence - magnetic variation
Magnetic bearing (north grid line) = 0° - 0° 30

 
07˝ - 4°9 = 355° 40´ 53˝
Magnetic bearing (east grid line) = 90° - 0° 30 Graphical (vector) solution
07˝ - 4°9 = 89° 40´ 53˝
Draw the two planes as tangent vectors:
In this case the grid lines can be set out on
1. bearing 54° and distance of tan 30° (0.577),
magnetic bearings of 355° 20´ and 85° 20´
and
Step 4 Calculate the slope distance between 2. bearing 164° and distance of tan 60°
each grid peg given that the north slope (1.7320).
is -3° 30´and the east slope is 4° 30’. Draw a line through the origin, at right angles
North slope distance = to the line joining the two tangent vectors.
50
SD = HD = = 50.09 m Read the bearing of the line of intersection with
Cos(i) Cos(- 3c30') a protractor (90°), and measure the length of the
East slope distance = tangent vector (0.465 units). This is the tangent
of the angle of dip of the line of intersection (25°).
50
SD = HD = = 50.15 m
Cos(i) Cos(4c30')
Analytical solution
13.7. DIP AND FAULTS PROBLEMS 1. Set out the problem as for the graphic
Two very common geological problems are solution, by forming the triangle using the
the determination of the plunge line for two two direction vectors.
intersecting planes and the determination of true 2. Use the cosine rule to solve for distance of
dip and strike based on three observed points on the third side of the triangle (a). Angle A =
an inclined plane. These problems can be either bearing of dip plane 2 – bearing of dip plan 2
solved graphically or by calculation. = 164° – 54° = 110°.

Determination of the line of intersection a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc × cosA

of two planes
a = (0.577)2 + (1.732)2 - 2 × 0.577
Assume a bed dipping towards the bearing of × 1.732 × cos110°
54° at an angle of 30°, and a fault dipping at
60° towards the bearing of 164° (Figure 13.7.1). a = 2.0043
The plunge of the line of intersection of the two
planes can be found using graphical or analytical 3. Using the sine rule calculate the angles B and
(calculation) methods. C.

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Figure 13.7.2
sinA sinB sinC
= = Dip and strike of a plane (graphical method).
a b c
sin 110c sinB sinC
= =
1.8262.0043 1.732 0.577
1.732 # sin 110c
` sinB = = 0.8120
2.0043
` B = 54c 17l 43m

` C = 35c 42l 17 m
4. Bearing of line BC = Bearing AB + 180° –
Angle B.

BC = 54° + 180° – 54° 17´ 43˝

BC = 179° 42´ 17˝

5. Bearing of the line of intersection is at right

angles to the bearing of line BC.

Brgintersection = BC – 90 = 179° 42´ 17˝

= 89° 42´17˝
2. Draw a line joining the points of greatest
6. The plunge (dip) distance of the intersection
and least heights (B and C). A line giving the
line can be calculated using the sine rule for a
strike will pass from the point of intermediate
right angled triangle (see diagram above) to height (A) through a point D along BC.
determine the distance of this line and then
3. To find D, measure the length BC (350), and
taking the inverse tan function of this value:
calculate the length of BD from:
Plungedist
sin B = ` Plungedist = c # sin B height A - height B 1250 - 900
c = BD =
height C - height B BC 1332 - 900
Plungedist = 0.577 # sin (54c 17l 43m ) = 0.4688
350
= = 0.81
Plungeangle = atan (0.4688) = 25c 07' 07" 432

Note: The two answers are slightly different
but this is due to the inaccuracy inherent in the
graphical method.
Dip and strike of a plane based on three
observed points
The dip and strike of any planar surface may be
found if the position and elevation of any three
points on the planar surface are known. A typical
example is shown below.
BD = 0.81 # BC = 0.81 # 350 = 283.5
Line AD is thus the strike direction, and the
bearing can be read using a protractor (127°).
4. The dip is found by constructing a line
at right angles to AD, through B, which
meets the (strike) line AD at E. Draw BF
perpendicular to BE, and of length equal to
the difference in height between A and B, ie
350. The angle BEF is the dip angle (54°).

Coordinate table Analytical solution

Point E N Elevation 1. Determine the bearing, distances and
gradient from the highest elevated point (C)
A 72 150 1250 to the two other points A and B.
B 260 320 900 Calculated bearing, distances and gradient for
C 200 -20 1332 line CA using given coordinates:

BRGCA = atan ` j = atan ` j

EC - E A 200 - 72
Graphical (vector) solution
NC - N A - 20 - 150
1. Plot A, B and C on any convenient scale, as
shown in Figure 13.7.2. = atan (- 0.7529) = - 36c 58l 39m

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The calculated bearing is in the fourth quadrant Figure 13.7.3

so: Dip and strike of a plane (analytical method).
BRGCA = 360° – 36° 58′ 39˝ = 323° 01′ 21˝ B – 900m

(Ec - E A) + ^ Nc - N Ah2
2
Dist =
CA

= ^200 - 72h2 + (- 20 - 150) 2 = 212.800

A – 1250m
1250
DistCA
GradientCA = 1:
H A - HC
A’
= 1: 212.800 = 1: - 2.595
1250 - 1332 B’
Calculated bearing, distance and gradient for
line CB using given coordinates.

BrgCB = atan ` j = atan ` - - j

EC - E B 200 - 260
NC - N B 20 320 C – 1332m

= atan (0.1765) = 10c 00l 28m

sin (46c 59l 07 m ) sin (Al )
The calculated bearing is in the fourth quadrant = `
2.1314 0.7992
so remains as above.
0.7992 # sin (46c 59l 07 m )
sin (Al ) =
DistCB = ^ Ec - EBh2 + (Nc - N B) 2 2.1314
= 0.27417
= ^200 - 260h2 + ^- 20 - 320h2 = 345.254
` Al = 15c 54l 44m
DistCB
GradientCB = 1:
H B - HC 4. The bearing of the strike line:
345.254 A′B′ = Bearing CA – 180° – Angle A′
= 1: = 1: -0.7992
900 - 1332
BC = 323° 01′ 21″ – 180° – 15° 54′ 44″
The problem now becomes one of calculating
the true dip from point B, given the direction of BC = 127° 06′ 37″
two apparent dips. 5. The bearing of the dip:
2. Calculate the length of line A’B’ using the
Dipbrg = A′B′ – 90° = 127° 06´ 37˝ – 90°
cosine rule.
= 37° 06´ 37˝
2 2 2
AB' = CA' + CB' - 2 # CA' # CB' # cosC 6. The dip (plunge) distance of the intersection
2 2
= (2.595) + (0.7992) - 2 # 2.595 line can be calculated using the sine rule for
a right angled triangle (see Figure 13.7.4) to
%
# 0.7992 # cos46 59'07'' determine the distance of this line and then
taking the inverse tan function of this value:
A'B' = 2.1314
Dipdist
3. Using the sine rule, calculate the angle at A’ sin (Bl ) = ` Dipdist = CBl # sin (Bl )
or B’. This will give the bearing of the strike. CBl
Dipdist = 0.7992 # sin 62c 53l 51m = 0.7114
sinC l = sinBl = sinAl
Al Bl CAl CBl Dipangle = atan (1/0.7114) = 54c 34l 13m

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Figure 13.7.4
Angle between strike and direction of a section.

C – 1332m

TABLE 13.3
Table of true and apparent dip1.

True 80° 75° 70° 65° 60° 55° 50° 45° 40° 35° 30° 25° 20° 15° 10° 5°
dip1 Apparent dip
10° 10° 10° 9° 9° 9° 8° 8° 7° 6° 6° 5° 4° 3° 3° 2° 1°
15° 15° 14° 14° 14° 13° 12° 12° 10° 10° 9° 8° 6° 5° 4° 3° 1°
20° 20° 19° 19° 18° 18° 17° 16° 14° 13° 12° 10° 9° 7° 5° 4° 2°
25° 25° 24° 24° 23° 22° 21° 20° 18° 17° 15° 13° 11° 9° 7° 5° 2°
30° 30° 29° 28° 28° 27° 25° 24° 22° 20° 18° 16° 14° 11° 9° 6° 3°
35° 35° 34° 33° 32° 31° 30° 28° 26° 24° 22° 19° 16° 13° 10° 7° 4°
40° 40° 39° 38° 37° 36° 35° 33° 31° 28° 26° 23° 20° 16° 12° 8° 4°
45° 45° 44° 43° 42° 41° 39° 37° 35° 33° 30° 27° 23° 19° 15° 10° 5°
50° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 44° 42° 40° 37° 34° 31° 27° 22° 17° 12° 6°
55° 55° 54° 53° 52° 51° 49° 48° 45° 43° 39° 36° 31° 26° 20° 14° 7°
60° 60° 59° 58° 58° 56° 55° 53° 51° 48° 45° 41° 36° 30° 24° 17° 9°
65° 65° 64° 64° 63° 62° 60° 59° 57° 54° 51° 46° 42° 36° 29° 20° 11°
70° 70° 69° 69° 69° 68° 67° 65° 63° 60° 58° 54° 49° 43° 35° 25° 13°
75° 75° 74° 74° 74° 73° 72° 71° 69° 67° 65° 62° 58° 52° 44° 33° 18°
80° 80° 80° 79° 79° 78° 78° 77° 76° 75° 73° 71° 67° 63° 56° 45° 26°
85° 85° 85° 85° 84° 84° 84° 83° 83° 82° 81° 80° 78° 76° 71° 63° 45°

1. Values for true dip, etc not stated above may be calculated from: tan (apparent dip) = tan (true dip) × sin (angle
between strike and direction of section).

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Nomogram for estimating apparent dip1,2

Example: if true dip is 43˚, the apparent dip on a vertical section

making a 35˚ angle with the strike of the bedding would be 28˚.

1. From Forrester, J D, 1946. Principles of Field and Mining Geology (John Wiley: New York).
2. From Palmer, H S, 1918. New graphic method for determining the depth and thickness of strata and the
projection of dip, USGS Prof Paper 120-G, pp 123-128.

13.8. AIRPHOTO SCALE 1. When the elevation of a point, or the average

NOMOGRAM AND FORMULA ground height, is known, then the scale is:

Aerial photographs are often used in exploration altimeter ht - ground ht

geology for both an interpretative purpose and focal length of camera
metrical purpose. From the information supplied
2. When a distance on the aerial photograph
in the margin of an aerial photograph it is possible can be related to a known ground distance
to calculate the scale of photograph. This then from a topographic map then the airphoto
allows ground distances to be determined from scale is:
measurements taken from the photograph. The
scale of a photograph can be calculated in one of map dist # map scale factor
two ways: airphoto distance

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Figure 13.8.1
Airphoto scale formula.

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13.9. USEFUL MATHEMATICAL (SURVEYING) FORMULAE

6. GEOMETRIC AND SURVEYING DATA
Formulae for solution of triangles
1
6.1. FORMULAE FORAND
6. GEOMETRIC SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES
SURVEYING DATA
For right angle triangles.
FOR RIGHT ANGLE TRIANGLES
6.1. FORMULAE FOR SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES1

FOR RIGHT ANGLE TRIANGLES

FOR OBLIQUE TRIANGLES

1
For oblique triangles
FOR OBLIQUE TRIANGLES

1. From Peele, Robert, 1918. Mining Engineers’ Handbook,

Vol II, third edition, pp 36-17 to 36-19 (John Wiley: New
York), by permission.
1. From Peele, Robert, 1918. Mining Engineers’ Handbook,
third edition,
Vol II,Peele,
1. From R, 1918.ppMining
36-17 toEngineers’
36-19 (JohnHandbook,
Wiley: New
York),
vol by permission.
II, third edition, pp 36-17 to 36-19 (John Wiley:•
New
Field York). Manual
Geologists’ 271

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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data

_s - bi_s - ci
If a, b and B (two sides and an angle
tan A
2 =
opposite one of them are known:
s _s - ai
1. If b is equal to or greater than a, then sin A =  
Perimeter = a + b + c
a sin B   and C is found from C 180° - (A + B)
1 bc sin A = s (s - a) (s - b) (s - c) b
Area 2
Then C = a sin C
sin A
If a, b and c (three sides) are known:
a sin B
2. If (above) = 1, then A = 90c,
b
_s - bi_s - c i
tan A
2 = or cos A C = 90° - B and c = a sin C
s _s - a i
If b is less than a, and a sin B is less than 1,
2 2 2

= b +c -a 3.
b
2bc there are two solutions:
then calculate B similarly, and C from C =180° sin A1 = a sin B and A2 = 180c - A1
- (A + B) B
If a, B and C (two angles and one side) C1 = 180c - _ A1 + Bi and C2 = 180c
are known: - (A2 + B)

A = 180° -(B + C), then b = a sin B c1 = a sin C1 and c2 = a sin C2

sin A sin A1 sin A2

and c = a sin C
sin A

If a, b and C (two sides and the included

angle) are known:
1 (A - B) = a - b cot 1 C, and
tan 2
a+b 2
1 (A + B) = 90c - 1 C. From 1 (A + B) and
2 2 2
1 (A - B) thus found, A and B can be calculated,
2
then c = a sin C
sin A

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Formulae for area, perimeter, etc of planar figures1

1
6.2.1. FORMULAE FOR AREA, PERIMETER ETC OF PLANAR FIGURES

Rectangle
n Sides

Regular polygon

Triangle Circular sector

Circular segment

Quadrilateral

Parallelogram Circular zone

Trapezoid
Circular lune

1. From Peele, Robert, 1918. Mining Engineers’ Handbook, Vol II, third edition, pp 36-11 to 36-13 (John Wiley: New York),
by permission.
1. From Peele, R, 1918. Mining Engineers’ Handbook,
vol II, third edition, pp 36-17 to 36-19 (John Wiley:•
272New York). Field Geologists’ Manual

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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
GEOMETRIC AND SURVEYING DATA

Circle

Ellipse

Parabola

Irregular figures

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 CHAPTER GEOMETRIC
13 – Geometric and Surveying
AND SURVEYING DATA Data

Formulae for surfaces area, volume, etc of solids 1

6.2.2. FORMULAE FOR SURFACE AREA, VOLUME ETC OF SOLIDS

1. From Peele, Robert, 1918. Mining Engineers’ Handbook, Vol II, third edition, pp 36-11 to 36-15 (John Wiley: New York),
by permission.

274 Field Geologists’ Manual

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 CHAPTER 13 – Geometric and Surveying Data
GEOMETRIC AND SURVEYING DATA

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