BIOSTATISTICS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY

• Computations:
sum of the observations
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
- a single value that attempts to describe a set of number of observations
42.3+65.5+57.2+69.8+44.9
data by identifying the central position within 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
5
that set of data.
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟗𝟒
- measures of central tendency are sometimes
called measures of central locations • Interpretation: The mean weight of patients is
- Typical values that represent all the observations 55.94 kilograms.
- It only tells us the where the values tend to
crowd, but they do not measure the spread or Example 2: with outlier
PATIENT NO. WEIGHT (kgs)
variability of data
1 42.30
- most common measures: mean, median, and
2 65.50
mode 3 57.20
4 69.80
Mean 5 44.90
- Arithmetic mean is the sum of the values of 6 82.60
observations divided by the number of • Computations:
observations. 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
sum of the observations
number of observations
- Also known as average
42.3+65.5+57.2+69.8+44.9+82.6
- Most popular and well-known measure of 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
6
central tendency 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟑𝟖
- It can be used in both discrete and continuous • Interpretation: The mean weight of patients is
data 60.38 kilograms.
- Includes every value in the data set as part of the
computation Median
- Sensitive to different and extreme observations
- the middle score for a set of data that has been
- involves all observation in its computation
arranged in order of magnitude.
- any change in the observation will change the
o if odd: middle most observation
mean value
o if even: mean of 2 middlemost
- calculated for any quantitative variable
observation
- unit is the same as that of the original set of 𝑛+1
observations - position of median – can be computed as ( )
2
- adding the deviations of observations from the - always exists and is unique
mean is equal to zero - not influence by outliers
- point of balance or center of gravity of the - does not make use of all the observations in its
distribution computation
- serves as basis for the computation of higher - can be calculated for any quantitative variable
statistical methods - can be calculated for some qualitative variable
- Disadvantage: very susceptible to the influence
of outliers (extreme observations) Example 1
- Formulas: 42.30 44.90 57.20 65.50 69.80 82.60 88.90 91.20
o 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
sum of the observations • Computations: n = 8, it is even
number of observations 𝑛+1 8+1
2
= 2 = 4.5th which is the mean of 4th and 5th,
65.5+69.8
67.65 2
=
• Interpretation: 50% of the patients weighed less
than or equal to 67.65kg and 50% weighed
67.65kg or more.
o
▪ x = designate an observation Example 2
42.30 44.90 57.20 65.50 69.80 82.60 88.90 91.20 95.00
▪ i = position of the observation
• Computations: n = 9, it is odd
▪ Σ = summation notation 𝑛+1 9+1
▪ x̅ = sample mean 2
= 2 = 5th observation. Answer is = 69.80
▪ μ = population mean • Interpretation: 50% of the patients weighed less
▪ N = no of items in the population than or equal to 69.80 kg and 50% weighed
▪ n = no of items in the sample 69.80kg or more.

Example 1 Mode
PATIENT NO. WEIGHT (kgs) - the most frequently occurring value in a set of
1 42.30
observation
2 65.50
- It is possible for a data set to have no mode
3 57.20
- Can be unimodal = one mode
4 69.80
- Can be bimodal = two mode
5 44.90
- Can be multimodal = more than 2 modes
 BIOSTATISTICS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY

Example 1 Example 1
PATIENT NO. WEIGHT (kgs) QUIZ 1 QUIZ 2
1 42.30 20 5
2 65.50 22 15
3 57.20 25 25
4 65.50 26 30
5 44.90 27 45
6 82.60 • Quiz 1: 27 – 20 = 7
• mode = 65.50 kilograms • Quiz 2: 45 – 5 = 40 (more variable)
• the data set is unimodal
• Interpretation: The usual weight of patients is Example 2
65.60 kilograms QUIZ 1 QUIZ 2
1 1
1 3
LOCATIONS OF THE 1 5
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY 1 7
9 9
• Quiz 1: 9 – 1 = 8
• Quiz 2: 9 – 1 = 8

Variance
- the average of the squared deviations from the
mean
- measure of variability that takes the mean as the
➢ Negatively Skewed – the mean is less than the reference point
median and the mode - it involves all observations
➢ Normally Skewed (Normal Curve) – there is a - Formulas:
normal distribution between the mean, median, o 𝑠2 =
sum of the squared deviations
and the mode number of observations

➢ Positively Skewed – the mode is less than the

median and the mean
o
Sample variance working formula

SUMMARY
TYPE OF VARIABLE BEST MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Example 1
PATIENT NO. WEIGHT (kgs) (WEIGHT)2
Nominal Mode
1 42.30 1789.29
Ordinal Median
2 65.50 4290.25
Interval/Ratio (not skewed) Mean
3 57.20 3271.84
Interval/Ratio (skewed) Median
4 69.80 4872.04
5 44.90 2016.01
6 82..60 6822.76
Total 362.30 23022.98
- also called as measures of spread
- used to describe the variability in a sample or • Computations:
population
- can describe whether the population is
homogenous or heterogenous
- used in conjunction with a measure of central
tendency
- the measures describe the variability of
observations
- may be used for quantitative variables only
- most common measures: range, variance,
standard deviation, and coefficient variation Standard Deviation
- the square root of the variance
Range - unit is the same as that of the original set of
- Simplest measure of dispersion observations
- Difference between the highest and lowest value - Formula:
- Formula: highest obs – lowest obs
- Used when you have ordinal data or when
presenting results to people with little o
knowledge of statistics Squared sample variance Squared working formula
- fairly insensitive (only depends on two scores on
the set of data) Example 1
• Computations:
s2 = 205.03 kgs2
s = 14.32 kgs
 BIOSTATISTICS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY

Coefficient of Variance QUARTILES, DECILES, AND PERCENTILES

- the measure of relative variation
- always a %
- Shows variation relative to Mean
- used to compare 2 or more groups
- Formula:
SD
o 𝑐𝑣 = mean 𝑥 100

Example 1
• Computations:
14.32
60.38
𝑥 100 = 23.72%

Example 2
Weight in kg Height in cm
Mean 50 160
Standard Deviation 3.9 7.5
which is more variable, height in cms? or weight in kgs?
Solution: Finding Quartiles, Deciles, or Percentiles
1. We follow the same procedures to find the
• Computations:
3.9 median.
𝐶𝑉𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 50 𝑥 100 = 7.8% 2. Arrange the data in ascending form.
7.5
𝐶𝑉ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑥 100 = 4.7% 3. Convert measures of location to percentile. Then
160
• Interpretation: Weight is more variable than use,
𝑘 (𝑛+1)
Height. a. 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 100 = 𝑥. 𝑦𝑡ℎ
b. 𝑃(𝑥.𝑦)𝑡ℎ = 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑥 + 𝑦 (𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑥+1 − 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑥 )
SUMMARY
- measure of dispersion is low or small: Example
o homogenous distribution of observation PATIENT NO. WEIGHT (kgs)
- measure of dispersion is high or large: 1 7.0

o heterogenous distribution of 2 17.0

3 12.6
observation
4 15.7
5 17.7
6 16.0
- determines the location/ position of a particular 7 16.0

value in an array of distribution 8 11.7

9 17.5
- provide more details about a part of the entire
10 12.6
distribution of observations in a given data
- used for both qualitative and quantitative data Arrange the data in ascending form
7.0 11.7 12.6 12.6 15.7 16.0 16.0 17.0 17.5 17.7
- the measures show the relative position of an
• Computations:
observation in an array
✓ Compute for Q3
- most common measures: percentiles, deciles, 75 (10+1)
and quartiles 𝑄3 = 𝑃75 ; = 8.25
100
𝑃75 = 17 + 0.25 (17.5 − 17) = 17.13
Percentiles (Pi) ✓ Compute for P15
15 (10+1)
𝑃15 = = 1.65
- points of distribution that divides the 100
observation into 100 equal parts 𝑃15 = 7 + 0.65 (11.7 − 7) = 10.06
- 1 of the 99 values of a variable ✓ Compute for D5
50 (10+1)
- Example: Suppose LJ was told that relative to the 𝐷5 = 𝑄2 = 𝑃50 = 5.5
100
other scores on a certain test, his score was the 𝑃50 = 15.7 + 0.50 (16.0 − 15.7) = 15.9
95th percentile. • Interpretations:
o This means that 95% of those who took o Interpretation 1: Q3 = 17.13
the test had scores less than or equal to ▪ 75% of infants have weights less
LJ’s score, while 5% had scores higher than or equal to 17.13 kgs while
than LJ’s 25% have weights greater than
17.13 kgs.
Deciles (Di) o Interpretation 2: P15= 10.06
- points of distribution that divides the ▪ 15% of infants have weights less
observation into 10 equal parts than or equal to 10.06 kgs while
- 1 of the 9 values of a variable 85% have weights greater than
10.06 kgs.
o Interpretation 3: D5= 15.90
Quartiles (Qi)
▪ 50% of infants have weights less
- points of distribution that divides the than or equal to 15.90 kgs while
observation into 4 equal parts 50% have weights greater than
- 1 of the 3 values of a variable 15.90 kgs.