Ebook How To Write A College Essay

How to write a
college essay
A complete guide to becoming an
expert essay writer
We’ve released this ebook to help you become an
expert in essay writing. This ebook is a complete
guide to essay writing and covers everything from
choosing a topic for your paper and doing research
to writing a solid essay conclusion and revising it.
Learn all the skills you need to ace your next essay
and practice with our quizzes and worksheets!
If you’d like to read more, our BibGuru blog features

informative, student-focused articles on every step
of the writing process.
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Why do you need to work on your
essay writing skills?
More often than not, college essay writing forms a significant part of
your day-to-day coursework—and a significant part of your course
grades. Essay writing can be a complex process, especially when
you’re just starting out.
Yet, by continuing to build your skills, you learn how to manage the
research, writing, and citation process in a way that improves your
confidence as a writer and potentially increases your grades.
Plus, working on your essay writing skills can make you a better
communicator overall. The ability to construct an argument, utilize
evidence and analysis, and write clearly and with concision are skills
that are valued in almost every profession.
How can this ebook help you?

This ebook takes you step-by-step through the process of writing a
paper and provides you with detailed instructions for each part of
the process. We have also included bonus chapters on how to read
a scholarly article and how to avoid plagiarism so that you’re fully
equipped to master your papers from start to finish.
It’s important to remember that writing is a process and, like any

other process, it can be broken down into more manageable parts.
This ebook helps you to do that by exploring each step in detail. By
the end of this book, you’ll have encountered a range of strategies
and tips that you can immediately apply to your next paper.
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Table of Contents
1. Before you start writing your essay
1.1. Preparation for writing an essay
1.2. Types of essays
2. Writing your essay

2.1. Writing your essay outline
2.2. Introduction
2.3. Body
2.4. Conclusion
3. Revising your essay

3.1. Why revise?
3.2. The differences between proofreading and revising
3.3. Making a revision plan
3.4. Revision methods
4. Essay writing tips and examples

4.1. Argumentative essay
4.2. Exploratory essay
4.3. Narrative essay
4.4. How many sentences are in a paragraph?
5. Bonus chapters
5.1. How to read a scholarly article
5.2. Plagiarism and how to properly credit your sources
5.3. How to use BibGuru
5.4. Helpful Resources
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1
Before you start

writing your essay
Before you start writing your essay, you should make
sure that you are well-prepared and have a solid idea
of what you are going to write about and how. This
chapter will help you prepare for writing your essay
by exploring a couple of fundamental questions that
you’ll need to answer before you start writing.
↳ Go to table of contents
1 Get started • 2 Write • 3 Revise • 4 Tips and Examples • 5 Bonus chapters
1.1 Preparation for writing an essay

Often, your professor will give out an assignment sheet with all the
information you need to know about your assignment, but this is not
always the case. In any case, you need to have a clear idea of what
you want to say and how you want to say it. These are a few steps
you can take to prepare for writing your essay.
Do not put off reading over your assignment

If you receive an assignment sheet, make sure to read it carefully
right away and don’t put it off. Few things are worse than ignoring
a project until the last minute and then realizing you don’t
understand part of it. At this point, it might be too late to get
clarification on the assignment.
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Ask questions until you are sure

about what you have to do
Many students lose points on assignments because they didn’t fully

understand them. Asking questions early on will help you later.
Here are some questions you should be able to answer before
starting to write:
• What is the goal of the essay?
• How long should it be?
• What’s the deadline?
• Which format should the essay be in?
• How many sources are required?
• Is there any aspect of the task that

I don’t understand?
• Does the professor have any other

specific requirements for the essay?
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Do your research
Make sure to research and read enough sources to understand the
topic and develop your own ideas and arguments for the essay.
Chapter 5.1. teaches you how to read a scholarly article so you can
make the most out of this part of your task.
Come up with a thesis statement for your essay

The thesis statement is one of the most important elements of any
piece of academic writing. It is a brief statement of the main point or
central message of your paper. Essentially, you are stating what you
will be writing about. You can also think of your thesis statement as
an answer to a research question.
A good thesis statement needs to do the following:
• Focus the main idea of your thesis into one or two sentences
• Write the answer to the main question of your topic
• Clearly state your position in relation to the topic
• Do not state the obvious. Give a disputable stance

that requires support or evidence
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As previously mentioned, your thesis statement should answer a

question.
If the question is:
QUESTION
What do you think the City of New York should do to reduce traffic
congestion?
A good thesis statement restates the question and answers it:
THESIS STATEMENT
In this paper, I will argue that the City of New York should focus on
providing exclusive lanes for public transport and adaptive traffic
signals to reduce traffic congestion by the year 2035.
Here is another example. If the question is:
QUESTION
How can we end poverty?
A good thesis statement should give at least one solution to the

problem in question:
THESIS STATEMENT
In this paper, I will argue that introducing universal basic income can
help reduce poverty and positively impact the way we work.
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Plan for extra time to revise and

proofread your paper
Although revision and proofreading are important steps in the writing

process, many students simply skip them. Revising your paper helps
you improve your work and receive a better grade. It also helps you
become a better writer. Each time you revise, you become more
aware of your strengths and weaknesses.
Some students skip revision because they finish their essay too close
to (or even after) the deadline. As a result, they end up losing points
for careless mistakes. Make sure to plan some extra time for revision
and proofreading, to avoid that mistake.
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1.2 Types of essays

Inventor Charles Kettering famously said that “a problem well stated
is half solved.” The same is true for writing an essay. An essay that’s
well-conceived at the planning stage, which includes defining a clear
topic and selecting the right format from the different types of essay
formats that are available, makes writing the essay that much easier.
Here is an overview of the different types of essays that you may

encounter at the university level.
Admissions essay
An admissions essay is an essay crafted specifically as part
of an application for entry to a program or institution. It
is meant to demonstrate the applicant’s writing skills and
also to provide some insight into the applicant themself.
In most cases, the topic is centered on the applicant’s life
experience or personal perspective as a way to evoke what
is unique, interesting, or notable about them. The scope of
an admissions essay can vary widely, from being a general
overview of their life to a highly specific personal topic.
Example prompt for an admissions essay:

Share a meaningful experience from your life and
how it shaped the person you are today.
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Analytical essay
An analytical essay is a research-based essay that explores
the “why” and the “how” of a topic. It doesn’t frame the
information in terms of an argument, but instead aims to
provide a 360-degree view of a topic and what it means.
An analytical essay may mention different viewpoints but it
generally won’t argue in favor of any of them.
Example prompt for an analytical essay:

The likelihood that a person will become a smoker
may be influenced by their family history,
environment, and socioeconomic status.
Argumentative essay
An argumentative essay advances an opinion or a point
of view, and then makes the case for that opinion with
evidence. Traditionally, an argumentative essay states its
position upfront, in the opening paragraph, as a thesis
statement. The thesis statement is then supported through
evidence that can include references to published studies,
quotes from experts on the topic, and the writer’s own
critical analysis. The ultimate goal of an argumentative
essay is to convince the reader of the legitimacy and
correctness of the thesis.
Example prompt for an argumentative essay:

Should student-athletes be paid for their
participation in school sports?
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Compare and Contrast essay

A compare and contrast essay looks at two topics in
relation to each other. It provides points of comparison
and evaluates how they are similar or not similar. The
purpose of this type of essay is to draw a larger insight
or conclusion by looking at the relationship between the
two topics, so it typically requires higher-order analytical
thinking. Each part of the essay should be focused on
comparing and contrasting, which means the thesis
statement and the ensuing paragraphs should encompass
both topics.
Example prompt for a compare and contrast essay:

Discuss the effectiveness of online learning versus in-
person learning.
Exploratory essay
An exploratory essay is based around posing questions and
gathering information in response to those questions. The
goal of this type of essay is not to find definitive answers or
advance particular viewpoints but rather to simply explore
a topic and bring readers along for the ride. A good
exploratory essay is one that begins with a solid, relevant
question and provides a clear, systematic, and engaging
exploration of the search for information on that topic, tied
off with a conclusion that summarizes the writer’s findings.
Example prompt for an exploratory essay:

How are governments around the world responding to
the COVID-19 pandemic?
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Expository essay
An expository essay consists of an explanation of a topic.
The writer doesn’t necessarily advance a point of view
about the topic, but rather a comprehensive overview of
it. The goal of an expository essay is to communicate the
writer’s understanding and knowledge of a topic, as well
as their ability to express that knowledge in an organized
and well-balanced way. The most common structure for
an expository essay opens with a statement of the topic
and some background information on it, followed by more
details, and finishes with a concluding paragraph that
summarizes the information.
Example prompt for an expository essay:

Explain the history and purpose of the Olympic games.
Narrative essay
A narrative essay tells a story, often about a real personal
experience the writer had. It can also explore an imagined
experience. The purpose of a narrative essay is to use
language, writing, and storytelling techniques to craft
an engaging and creative narrative that holds readers’
interests. Narrative essays are flexible in format and tend
not to follow the standard sequence of introduction, body,
and conclusion. However, they should progress in a clear
and compelling way, culminating in some statement about
the meaning of the story.
Example prompt for a narrative essay:

Write about a time when you faced a major setback.
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Personal essay/Personal statement

A personal essay or a personal statement is similar to an
admissions essay in that it is usually part of an application
to a program. Its purpose is to provide a platform for the
writer to introduce and talk about themselves. It can be in
the form of relating a meaningful experience from their life
or it can focus specifically on the area of study they wish
to enter and what they hope to accomplish.
Example prompt for a personal essay

or personal statement:
What are your goals for studying 19th-century literature
in the master’s program at the University of Genovia?
Persuasive essay
A persuasive essay focuses on convincing the reader
of an opinion or point of view. In this way, it is similar
to the argumentative essay. Where it differs from an
argumentative essay is that a persuasive essay can
appeal to emotions, personal opinions, and other
subjective factors. Conversely, an argumentative essay
relies more squarely on facts, figures, and hard research
to make its case.
Example prompt for a persuasive essay:

Housing should be treated as a universal human right.
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Reflective essay
A reflective essay offers the writer an opportunity to
examine their own experiences. Like other creative essay
formats, a reflective essay doesn’t have to adhere to a rigid
structure. The important thing is that it takes a thoughtful
eye to the past and offers some insight or comment on the
meaning of those experiences.
Example prompt for a reflective essay:

How has your time as a high school student
changed you?
The first step in writing a good essay is choosing what

type of essay is the most appropriate for your topic or
confirming that you understand the type of essay that
your instructor assigned. Consider what your main goal
or purpose is in writing the essay—whether it’s to argue,
persuade, explore, reflect, etc.—and then select the essay
type that is most appropriate. Then, start writing!
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2
Writing your essay
2.1 Writing your essay outline
Creating an outline for your next essay will help you to structure your
thoughts more clearly before you put them down on paper.
The advantages of working on a paper outline first are numerous;

besides planning your answers, you’ll be able to organize them for
better flow and ensure you haven’t missed anything important. An
organized outline leads to an organized paper, which will have a
better chance of getting a good grade.
Before writing your outline

Before you start your outline, look carefully at the writing
assignment. If you’re a student, pay attention to the rubric and try to
get a good idea of what your teacher or instructor is looking for.
To write a strong outline, you’ll ultimately need to make sure you’ve

reviewed all the resources given and that you are approaching it from
the right angle.
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The basic parts of essay outlines

Every essay or research paper has to have a structure, and this is
what you should also attempt to do in your essay outline. Broken
down into the most basic parts, every essay outline should have:
• A strong introduction and thesis statement
• A body, or arguments and counterarguments
• A conclusion that reiterates the thesis statement

and summarizes key thoughts
Your outline should ideally be structured so that your arguments are

ranked in terms of their importance and follow a logical sequence. As
you structure each section, begin with more general information and
then add more specific details.
Since you’re working on an outline first, you can easily shift around
arguments and supporting statements to make sure the final project
will satisfy the assignment requirements.
Remember to check carefully for any repetitive ideas or statements

and to think about the audience for your paper.
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Language in outlines
Even though your outline may be rough initially, it will be important
to focus on the language you’re using from the beginning. Paying
attention to language now will prepare you to write full essay and
help you avoid mistakes that can affect your essay later on.
Ask yourself, is my outline grammatically correct and consistent?

Are my headings correct? Typically, your main headings should be
more general with each subheading becoming more specific as it
explains your ideas.
Even within the basic structure of your outline, you want to make
sure that you are using complete sentences. Use the outline to make
note of interesting terminology and theories you want to add to the
final essay.
Formatting your essay outline

Your essay outline should adhere to the requirements provided
along with the essay topic — this is what makes taking that first
step to evaluate everything so important.
The majority of essays are structured using an alphanumeric

structure, but there are other options like the decimal outline
structure. It all comes down to what the teacher or lecturer has
asked for.
If there is no specific requirement, you can use the system of your

choice. In this case, just be sure to remember that consistency is key:
you want to use the same system throughout your entire outline.
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The alphanumeric structure is a common type of outline formatting

system that uses the following characters for headings:
I, II, III, IV ... A, B, C, D...
Roman numerals Capital letters
1, 2, 3, 4, 5... a, b, c, d, e...
Arabic numerals Lowercase letters
The decimal system on the other hand is similar but has the
additional purpose of showing how every part of the outline relates
to the rest of the essay. Instead of numerals and letters, a decimal
outline uses decimals when formatting headings and subheadings.
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Writing your essay outline

When you’re ready to start writing your essay outline, it’s best to take
a step-by-step approach.
The first thing you want to do is to carefully consider the subject.

Is the essay meant to be argumentative, narrative, or expository?
Different categories will require different types of outlines.
For example, narrative essays will have a structure that is unlike
the format used in an analytical essay.
It may be worthwhile to take some time to brainstorm all of

the topics or ideas you want to write about and to choose the
one you feel has the most potential from the shortlist. This is also
a good opportunity to connect related ideas and strengthen your
outline even further.
The next step is to take your list of organized ideas and structure
them into an essay outline. When working on this part, you should
organize your ideas by the level of importance. Think about how you
can introduce these topics, give an explanation for them, and what
conclusions can be drawn from them. Don’t go into too much detail.
From there, you’ll want to write headings and subheadings based

on the ideas you have gathered. Headings are one of the most
underrated parts of writing an essay, but they too play a huge role in
the success of a paper.
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The secret to writing great headings is to make sure that every one
you put down adheres to the following guidelines:
YES NO
• Does the reader understand the essay content?
YES NO
• Is each content section clear?
YES NO
• Does each section relate to the other sections?
If you’re unable to say “yes” to all the above, your headings will need
some additional work.
When all of the above has been completed, you can start to fill in the
body of your outline with your ideas and some rough sentences that
you can build on in the actual paper.
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Essay outline example

As mentioned above, your outline is essentially broken down into
multiple layers of organization. Let’s take a closer look at how this
works in practice.
Layer one is the most generalized section of the outline and will
contain an introduction to the ideas you’ll be discussing in the
paper, and the conclusion. Think of this as the elevator pitch of
your research. You can expect layer one to look like the following:
EXAMPLE
Topic: Stress levels associated with remote work
I. Introduction
A. What is remote work?
B. Increase in reported stress levels from surveyed remote workers
C. Supporting statistics
II. Common stressors for remote workers

A. Explanation of stressors unique to remote workers
B. Risk of high levels of stress
C. How remote workers handle stress
III. Remote companies

A. How companies are responding to remote worker stressors
B. Responsibilities of the company versus employee
C. Potential solutions to explore further
IV. Conclusion
A. Summary of facts
B. Summary of statistics
C. Concluding statement
From the above, you can see that the main points of the example
outline are separated into their own sections. Every main idea you
introduce should have at least one or two supporting statements
before you add another main idea.
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2.2 Introduction
Getting started
Once you’ve finished your outline, it’s time to dive into writing. Many
students (and even seasoned writers) struggle to start writing. Use
your outline as a guide and don’t be afraid to just start writing by
putting your thoughts on the page.
Often, just the act of typing or writing ideas can spur you to write
more substantial thoughts. Remember: your work doesn’t need to be
polished at this point. If you plan properly, you’ll have time to revise
your paper at least once. We’ll cover revision the revision chapter (3).
What is an introduction?
An introduction provides an overview and includes the context for
your topic, an exploration of what others have written about your
topic, and a clear statement of your thesis or main argument.
• Context includes general information about the topic. You

may introduce your topic through key statistics or historical
information. This part of the introduction may also outline, or
signpost, what the rest of the paper will cover.
• Academic papers typically include brief explorations of what

others have written about the topic. This section is sometimes
called the “literature review” or “state-of-the-field.” Here,
you’ll highlight the preparatory research that you’ve done and
demonstrate how your ideas fit within the existing conversation
about your topic.
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• Your thesis statement directly states your main argument.

Depending on the requirements of your assignment, you might
begin your thesis statement with a phrase like “I argue that...”
to signal to your reader that you’re communicating your
main argument.
Let’s take a look at these parts of the introduction in more depth.
Context
Many academic papers start with a kind of “hook”: a story or statistic
that grabs the reader’s attention and prepares them for what they will
encounter throughout the rest of the essay.
For instance, if you were writing a critical analysis paper on

Charlotte Bronte’s 1847 novel, Jane Eyre, you might start your essay
by providing the reader with some background about the novel’s
publication or about the period in which it was written. What kind
of context you provide depends greatly on the content of your
thesis statement.
In this case, you would want to avoid starting your essay with a
generic biography of Charlotte Bronte. Instead, choose contextual
information that directly reflects the paper’s thesis. If your paper
explores the novel’s narration style, you might begin your paper by
discussing how Victorian novels like Jane Eyre frequently utilized
first-person narration.
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Exploring what others have written about

your topic
The next part of the introduction should introduce what others have
written about your topic. This state-of-the-field allows you to show
that you’ve done adequate research about the topic and sets up your
main argument. By exploring what others have argued, you can show
how your thesis either supports or disproves previous ideas.
If you’ve done enough research on your topic, and if you took notes
and marked passages as you were reading your sources, you will
be able to easily construct a state-of-the-field. You can start this
section by stating that “Previous writers have argued that...” or a
similar phrase. This will allow you to set up a brief exploration of the
scholarly conversation.
Here, you may want to include direct quotes from some of the
sources that you’ve read—especially those that highlight other
writers’ main arguments. We’ll discuss how to identify other writers’
main arguments in chapter 4.1.
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The thesis statement

Your thesis is a direct statement of your paper’s main argument. It
should start with a phrase like “I argue that...” or “This paper argues
that...” so your reader clearly understands the argument that you’re
trying to make.
Importantly, although it’s called a thesis “statement,” this part of you

introduction can be more than one sentence. You should use as much
space as you need to clearly outline the paper’s main argument,
keeping in mind any assignment guidelines that you received from
your instructor.
This part of the introduction may also outline, or signpost, what

the rest of the paper will cover. You can signal this through a
statement like:
SIGNPOST EXAMPLE
In what follows, I will critically analyze three key chapters of Jane Eyre,
focusing on how Bronte constructs the first-person narration.
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2.3 Body
Getting started
After you’ve completed your introduction, you can now turn to
constructing the body paragraphs of your paper. Again, use your
outline to guide you as you assemble this section. If you’ve taken
good notes while conducting your research, you should be able to fill
in the central parts of your outline.
Some students start their papers by writing the body paragraphs

first. This method allows you to have a stronger sense of what you
accomplish in your paper, so that when you write your thesis, you
already know what you’ve argued. Since many students start out
with thesis statements that are either too broad or too narrow, this
method may help you to develop a more realistic thesis statement.
No matter what approach you use, the important thing is to just

start writing.
No matter what
approach you use,
the important thing
is to just start writing.
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What to include in the body of your paper

The body contains all of the evidence and analysis that you need
to support your thesis statement. Follow your outline to create
body paragraphs that gradually build your argument towards your
conclusion. Most papers will have several body paragraphs.
Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that connects

the paragraph to the previous one, while clearly indicating the
subsequent paragraph’s main idea. Successive sentences will present
evidence—in the form of direct quotes, statistics, or other results—
alongside interpretation or analysis.
The topic sentence

A topic sentence should clearly orient the reader by pointing both
backwards to the previous paragraph and forwards to the paragraph
at hand.
For example, if you were preparing a central body paragraph for your
paper on Jane Eyre, you might start your paragraph this way:
TOPIC SENTENCE
While chapter three of the novel focuses on narrating Jane’s experiences

from the perspective of her childhood self, chapter four switches focus
to Jane’s adult interpretation of events.
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Evidence and analysis

The main section of any body paragraph includes key pieces of
evidence from your research, followed by analysis.
You might set-up a direct quote from the novel and follow it with
your interpretation:
QUOTE AND INTERPRETATION
For example, on page 44, Bronte writes that “[insert direct quote].”
Here, Bronte uses a change in tense to signal that Jane’s perspective has
shifted from a childhood one to an adult one, even while staying in the
first-person. In doing so, Bronte demonstrates that Jane’s sense of self
is split between the child she once was and the woman she has become.
Concluding sentence
Each body paragraph should contain a concluding sentence that
clearly ends the main idea of that paragraph and that prepares the
reader to encounter the next paragraph.
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2.4 Conclusion
Getting started
Now that you’ve written the body of your essay, it’s time to tackle
the conclusion. Many writers struggle to compose meaningful and
concise conclusions. Again, as in other sections of your paper, it’s
best to dive right in and start writing.
Use your outline to keep your conclusion concise and on point. A

conclusion should not introduce new information.
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What is a conclusion?
Your conclusion should return to your thesis statement. In what
ways have you proven your thesis? What are the implications of
your research and analysis? A conclusion should not just summarize
everything you did in the previous paragraphs.
Remember, when you engage with academic research, and compose

academic papers, you are entering an ongoing conversation about a
specific topic or idea. While you shouldn’t include new information
in your conclusion, you can make recommendations and discuss
the possible impact of your argument on the broader scholarly
conversation. Are there points or ideas that require further research?
Crafting your conclusion

As you’re writing your conclusion, keep the assignment requirements
in mind. Your instructor may have specific directions for how you
should handle the conclusion.
You can to start your conclusion with a phrase like, “In this paper, I
argued that...” to signal to the reader that you’re ready to conclude.
Then, discuss the possible implications of your research: how does
your idea add to the conversation?
If you began your paper with an anecdote or historical example, you

may want to return to that in your conclusion. Finally, you should
provide a sense of resolution and make sure your conclusion wraps
up your argument. You want readers to feel more informed, or ready
to act, as they read your conclusion.
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3
Revising your essay
3.1 Why revise?

Revision is an important step in the writing process that far too many
writers skip. This is unfortunate since revision is one of the keys to
becoming a better writer. Plus, students who take the time to revise
typically receive better grades.
When you revise, you not only improve your current paper, but
you also become more aware of your strengths and weaknesses as
a writer. This awareness enables you to better assess your future
writing. By revising regularly, you learn to spot mistakes quickly
and efficiently.
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3.2 The differences between

proofreading and revising
The basics
Although the terms “proofreading,” “editing,” and “revising” are
often used interchangeably, they are actually different tasks. Editing
refers to the actual process of making changes to your paper. Those
changes could come from either proofreading or revising.
Proofreading involves a surface-level scan of your paper. Revising,

however, refers to the process of making substantive changes to a
written work. This section discusses the main differences between
proofreading and revising.
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Proofreading
When you proofread your paper, you’re scanning the overall
composition to look for basic typographical, grammatical, and
stylistic mistakes. The primary goal of proofreading is to catch
surface-level issues that can be changed fairly quickly.
As you’re proofreading, watch out for:

• typos
• misspelled words
• punctuation mistakes
• subject-verb agreement issues

(does the subject of your sentence agree with the verb?)
• tense inconsistencies
(are you using the same tense throughout your paper?)
• missing information
• citation errors
• plagiarism
Proofreading can be one component of your revision process that

you complete either before you undertake substantial revisions or
right before you turn in your paper.
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Revising
Revision involves making substantive changes to the content and
structure of your paper. At this stage, you may want to take out your
outline again and compare your finished product to it.
Can your reader clearly follow your argument? Are the steps to the
conclusion clear?
Your revision should include fundamental changes in:

• the construction of sentences and paragraphs
(style and sequence)
• the articulation of your claims

(are you adequately proving your thesis?)
• your evidence and use of evidence

(integration of quotes, responding to
or challenging other critical viewpoints)
• the overall organization of your paper

(transitions between ideas and paragraphs)
Let’s take a look at some of these points in more depth.
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Style and Sequence

If you’ve proofread your paper prior to revising, you may have already
caught some stylistic errors. At this point, you’ll want to be sure that
your paper conforms to the conventions of academic writing and that
your tone is consistent.
You also want to pay attention to the sequence of your paragraphs.

Are there places in the paper that lack logical coherence? Are there
paragraphs that can be shuffled around so that the sequence of your
argument makes more sense?
The articulation of your claims

While you’re revising, it’s important to make sure that you are clearly
articulating your claims. Avoid phrases like, “it could be argued..”
or “it has been claimed...” Instead, focus on making firm claims that
relate to your thesis statement.
Also, watch out for places in your paper where you might be taking
large leaps between ideas. To ensure that your reader can follow
along, add “signposts” to your paper that signal your transition to a
new claim.
Importantly, you should be prepared to make extensive changes if

you find that your claims, or the way you’ve articulated them, do not
support your thesis statement.
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Your evidence and use of evidence

The revision process provides you with an excellent opportunity to
consider whether you’ve included enough evidence in your paper and
how you’re using that evidence. If you have included direct quotes
in your paper, are those “sandwiched” between your own words?
Quotes should never be left unattended in a research paper.
You will also want to ensure that you are using your evidence
effectively. Keep an eye out for places in your paper where you need
more evidence or where you rely too much on other writers’ ideas.
Finally, be sure that all of your evidence and analysis adequately
support your thesis statement.
The overall organization of your paper

Pay close attention to the transitions between sentences and
paragraphs and use your outline to double-check that your paper’s
organization follows a clear plan. If you find yourself getting lost
as you read your paper, it’s likely that any potential readers will be
lost, too.
Check carefully for places where a transitional phrase or sentence

could substantially clarify your ideas. Adding phrases like, “as
I mentioned above...” or “as a result,” where applicable, can
significantly improve the flow of your paper.
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3.3 Making a revision plan

It’s essential to make time for revision before you turn your paper in.
To do so, you should construct a brief revision plan when you
begin your paper that you can adapt as you are researching, writing,
and citing.
Ideally, plan to give yourself about a week to fully revise your paper,
including any proofreading that you’d like to complete before the
deadline. Be sure to schedule a gap between writing and revising,
so that you can step away from your paper and return to it with
fresh eyes.
Then, you might want to use your outline and assignment details to
create a revision checklist. While this checklist will vary depending
on the assignment, course, or writer, it should contain the key points
that we’ve covered thus far in this chapter.
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3.4 Revision methods

There are many revision methods that you can use to improve your
paper. In this chapter, we highlight three of the most common and
effective approaches. Ultimately, you may find that certain methods
work better for you, depending on the length, complexity, and
structure of your paper.
Peer-to-peer
This revision method typically involves exchanging papers with a
fellow classmate or peer. Each writer reads the other’s paper and
provides feedback based on the assignment rubric or the writers’
outline and revision checklist.
Peer-to-peer revision can be especially useful because the classmate

who will be reading your paper will have a better sense of the
assignment’s requirements (if they are in class with you).
However, you can also simply ask a friend or a writing tutor to read
your paper and offer feedback. In this case, you’ll want to be sure to
supply the reader with any assignment guidelines or rubrics that you
have so that the goal of the paper is clear.
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Read aloud
Reading your paper aloud to either yourself or to a classmate,
family member, or tutor is one of the most effective ways to catch
both surface-level and substantive mistakes. Although it can seem
awkward to read your paper aloud, this method enables you to hear
quite clearly where there are structural mistakes in your paper.
If you find yourself stumbling over your words, or pausing to grasp

the sound or sense of your writing, then you know that you will
need to make revisions. Also, if you are reading your paper aloud to
another person, watch out for their facial expressions. If they look
confused, it’s probably because they are confused.
After you read your paper aloud, briefly take stock of your
experience. Mark the places in the paper where you stumbled and
note places that will need more substantial work. You can also make
notes as you’re reading, so keep a pencil or pen handy.
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Cut-up
This method combines the reading aloud approach with more
traditional editing practices. For this exercise, you’ll need a clean,
printed, double-spaced copy of your paper, a pair of scissors, a pen
or pencil, and a notebook or several sheets of loose-leaf paper.
Cut your paper into paragraph chunks.
Next, if you have paragraphs that extend over more than

one page, tape those pieces together so that they represent
the whole paragraph.
Lay your paragraphs, in order, on a large table or other

flat surface.
Read your paper aloud to yourself, making note of areas that need
revision, either on a separate sheet of paper or directly onto your
paragraph sections. If you need to switch paragraphs around, or take
portions of paragraphs and move them, feel free to do so. Use your
scissors to cut out paragraph sections in order to move them.
Once you’re finished reading through your paper, gather up your

pieces in order and clip them together so that you can reference
them when you make your formal edits.
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4
Essay writing tips

and examples
The following chapters provide more specific
details about a few of the essay types that were
covered in chapter 1.2. You’ll also learn more about
how to structure paragraphs and how to format
argumentative, exploratory, and narrative essays.
4.1 Argumentative essay

The argumentative essay is a staple in university courses, and
writing this style of essay is a key skill for students across multiple
disciplines. Here’s what you need to know to write an effective and
compelling argumentative essay.
What is an argumentative essay?

An argumentative essay takes a stance on an issue and presents an
argument to defend that stance with the intent of persuading the
reader to agree. It generally requires extensive research into a topic
so that you have a deep grasp of its subtleties and nuances, are able
to take a position on the issue, and can make a detailed and logical
case for one side or the other.
It’s not enough to merely have an opinion on an issue—you have to

present points to justify your opinion, often using data and other
supporting evidence.
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When you are assigned an argumentative essay, you will typically be

asked to take a position, usually in response to a question, and mount an
argument for it. The question can be two-sided or open-ended, as in the
examples provided below.
Examples of argumentative essay prompts:

TWO-SIDED QUESTION
Should completing a certain number of volunteer hours be a

requirement to graduate from high school? Support your argument
with evidence.
OPEN-ENDED QUESTION
What is the most significant impact that social media has had on this
generation of young people?
Once again, it’s important to remember that you’re not just conveying
facts or information in an argumentative essay. In the course of
researching your topic, you should develop a stance on the issue.
Your essay will then express that stance and attempt to persuade
the reader of its legitimacy and correctness through discussion,
assessment, and evaluation.
The main types of argumentative essays

Although you are advancing a particular viewpoint, your
argumentative essay must flow from a position of objectivity. Your
argument should evolve thoughtfully and rationally from evidence
and logic rather than emotion.
There are two main models that provide a good starting point for
crafting your essay: the Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.
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The Toulmin Model

This model is commonly used in academic essays. It mounts an
argument through the following four steps:
Make a claim.
Present the evidence, or grounds, for the claim.
Explain how the grounds support the claim.
Address potential objections to the claim, demonstrating that

you’ve given thought to the opposing side and identified its
limitations and deficiencies.
As an example of how to put the Toulmin model into practice, here’s

how you might structure an argument about the impact of devoting
public funding to building low-income housing.
• Make your claim that low-income housing effectively solves

several social issues that drain a city’s resources, providing a
significant return on investment.
• Cite data that shows how an increase in low-income housing is

related to a reduction in crime rates, homelessness, etc.
• Explain how this data proves the beneficial impact of funding

low-income housing.
• Preemptively counter objections to your claim and use data to

demonstrate whether these objections are valid or not.
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The Rogerian Model

This model is also frequently used within academia, and it also builds
an argument using four steps, although in a slightly different fashion:
Acknowledge the merits of the opposing position and what might

compel people to agree with it.
Draw attention to the problems with this position.
Lay out your own position and identify how it resolves

those problems.
Proffer some middle ground between the two viewpoints and

make the case that proponents of the opposing position might
benefit from adopting at least some elements of your view.
The persuasiveness of this model owes to the fact that it offers a

balanced view of the issue and attempts to find a compromise. For
this reason, it works especially well for topics that are polarizing and
where it’s important to demonstrate that you’re arguing in good faith.
To illustrate, here’s how you could argue that smartphones should be

permitted in classrooms.
• Concede that smartphones can be a distraction for students.
• Argue that what teachers view as disruptions are actually

opportunities for learning.
• Offer the view that smartphones, and students’ interest in them,

can be harnessed as teaching tools.
• Suggest teaching activities that involve smartphones

as a potential resource for teachers who are not convinced
of their value.
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It’s not essential to adhere strictly to one model or the other—you

can borrow elements from both models to structure your essay.
However, no matter which model of argumentation you choose,
your essay will need to have an outline that effectively presents and
develops your position.
How to outline and write an argumentative essay

A clear and straightforward structure works best for argumentative
essays since you want to make it easy for your reader to understand
your position and follow your arguments. The traditional essay
outline comprises an introductory paragraph that announces your
thesis statement, body paragraphs that unfold your argument point
by point, and a concluding paragraph that summarizes your thesis
and supporting points.
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Introductory paragraph
This paragraph provides an overview of your topic and any
background information that your readers will need in order to
understand the context and your position. It generally concludes with
an explicit statement of your position on the topic, which is known as
your thesis statement.
EXAMPLE
Over the last decade, smartphones have transformed nearly every

aspect of our lives, socially, culturally, and personally. They are now
incorporated into almost every facet of daily life, and this includes
making their way into classrooms. There are many educators who view
smartphones with suspicion and see them as a threat to the sanctity of
the classroom. Although there are reasons to regard smartphones with
caution, there are ways to use them responsibly to teach and educate
the next generation of young minds. Indeed, the value they hold as
teaching tools is nearly unlimited: as a way to teach digital literacy, to
reach students through a medium that is familiar and fun for them, and
to provide a nimble and adaptable learning environment.
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Body paragraphs
Most argumentative essays have at least three body paragraphs
that lay out the supporting points in favor of your argument. Each
paragraph should open with a topic sentence that presents a
separate point that is then fleshed out and backed up by research,
facts, figures, data, and other evidence. Remember that your aim
in writing an argumentative essay is to convince or persuade your
reader, and your body paragraphs are where you present your most
compelling pieces of information in order to do just that.
The body of your essay is also where you should address any
opposing arguments and make your case against them, either
disproving them or stating the reasons why you disagree. Responding
to potential rebuttals strengthens your argument and builds your
credibility with your readers.
EXAMPLE
A frequent objection that teachers have to smartphones in the classroom

is that students use them to socialize when they should be learning. This
view overlooks the fact that students are using smartphones to connect
with each other and this is a valuable skill that should be encouraged, not
discouraged, in the classroom. A 2014 study demonstrated the benefits of
providing students with individual smartphones. Sanctioned smartphone
use in the classroom proved to be of particular importance in improving
educational outcomes for low-income and at-risk students. What’s
more, learning apps have been developed specifically to take advantage
of the potential of smartphones to reach learners of various levels and
backgrounds, and many offer the ability to customize the method and
delivery of lessons to individual learner preferences. This shows that the
untapped potential of smartphones is huge, and many teachers would do
well to consider incorporating them into their classrooms.
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Conclusion
Your concluding paragraph wraps up your essay by restating your
thesis and recapping the arguments you presented in your body
paragraphs. No new information should be introduced in your
conclusion, however, you may consider shifting the lens of your
argument to make a comment on how this issue affects the world at
large or you personally, always keeping in mind that objectivity and
relevance are your guiding principles.
EXAMPLE
Smartphones have a growing place in the world of education, and

despite the presence of legitimate concerns about their use, their
value as teaching tools has been clearly established. With more and
more of our lives going digital and with the growing emphasis on
offering distance learning as an option, educators with an eye to the
future won’t wait to embrace smartphones and find ways to use them
to their fullest effect. As much time and space as we could devote to
weighing the pros and cons of smartphones, the fact is that they are not
going to disappear from our lives, and our best bet is to develop their,
and our students’, potential.
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4.2 Exploratory essay

Unlike other types of essays, the exploratory essay does not present
a specific argument or support a claim with evidence. Instead, an
exploratory essay allows a writer to “explore” a topic and consider
tentative conclusions about it.
What is an exploratory essay?

An exploratory essay considers a topic or problem and explores
possible solutions. This type of paper also sometimes includes
background about how you have approached the topic, as well as
information about your research process.
Whereas other types of essays take a concrete stance on an issue and

offer extensive support for that stance, the exploratory essay covers
how you arrived at an idea and what research materials and methods
you used to explore it.
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For example, an argumentative essay on expanding public

transportation might argue that increasing public transit options
improves citizens’ quality of life. However, an exploratory essay
would provide context for the issue and discuss what data and
research you gathered to consider the problem.
Importantly, an exploratory essay does not reach a specific

conclusion about a topic. Rather, it explores multiple conclusions and
possibilities. So, for the above example, your exploratory essay might
include several viewpoints about public transit, including research
from urban planners, transportation advocates, and other experts.
Finally, an exploratory essay will include some reflection on your

own research and writing process. You might be asked to draw
some conclusions about how you could tackle your topic in an
argumentative essay or you might reflect on what sources or pieces
of evidence were most helpful as you were exploring the topic.
Ultimately, the primary goal of an exploratory essay is to make

an inquiry about a topic or problem, investigate the context, and
address possible solutions.
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What to expect in an exploratory essay assignment

This section discusses what you can expect in an exploratory essay
assignment, in terms of length, style, and sources. Instructors may
also provide you with an exploratory essay example or an assignment
rubric to help you determine if your essay meets the appropriate
guidelines.
Length
The expected length of an exploratory essay varies depending on the
topic, course subject, and course level. For instance, an exploratory
essay assigned in an upper-level sociology course will likely be longer
than a similar assignment in an introductory course.
Like other essay types, exploratory essays typically include at least

five paragraphs, but most range from a few pages to the length of a
full research paper.
Style
While exploratory essays will generally follow academic style
guidelines, they differ from other essays because they tend to utilize
a more reflective, personal tone. This doesn’t mean that you can cast
off academic style rules, however.
Rather, think of an exploratory essay as a venue for presenting your

topic and methods to a sympathetic and intelligent audience of
fellow researchers. Most importantly, make sure that your writing is
clear, correct, and concise.
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Sources
As an exploration of your approach to a topic, an exploratory essay
will necessarily incorporate research material. As a result, you
should expect to include a bibliography or references page with your
essay. This page will list both the sources that you cite in your essay,
as well as any sources that you may have consulted during your
research process.
The citation style of your essay’s bibliography will vary based on

the subject of the course. For example, an exploratory essay for a
sociology class will probably adhere to APA style, while an essay in a
history class might use Chicago style.
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Exploratory essay outline and format

An exploratory essay utilizes the same basic structure that you’ll find
in other essays. It includes an introduction, body paragraphs, and
a conclusion. The introduction sets up the context for your topic,
addresses why that topic is worthy of study, and states your primary
research question(s).
The body paragraphs cover the research that you’ve conducted

and often include overviews of the sources that you’ve consulted.
The conclusion returns to your research question and considers
possible solutions.
Introduction
The introduction of an exploratory essay functions as an overview. In
this section, you should provide context for your topic, explain why
the topic is important, and state your research question(s).
• Context includes general information about the topic. This part

of the introduction may also outline, or signpost, what the rest of
the paper will cover.
• Topic importance helps readers “buy in” to your research. A few

sentences that address the question, “so what?” will enable you to
situate your research within an ongoing debate.
• The last part of of your introduction should clearly state your

research question(s). It’s okay to have more than one, depending
on the assignment.
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If you were writing an exploratory essay on public transportation, you

might start by briefly introducing the recent history of public transit
debates. Next, you could explain that public transportation research
is important because it has a concrete impact on our daily lives.
Finally, you might end your introduction by articulating your primary
research questions.
EXAMPLE
While some individuals may choose not to utilize public transportation,

decisions to expand or alter public transit systems affect the lives of all.
As a result of my preliminary research, I became interested in
exploring whether public transportation systems improve citizens’
quality of life. In particular, does public transit only improve conditions
for those who regularly use these systems? Or, do improvements
in public transportation positively impact the quality of life for all
individuals within a given city or region? The remainder of this essay
explores the research around these questions and considers some
possible conclusions.
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Body paragraphs
The body paragraphs of an exploratory essay discuss the research
process that you used to explore your topic. This section highlights
the sources that you found most useful and explains why they are
important to the debate.
You might also use the body paragraphs to address how individual
resources changed your thinking about your topic. Most exploratory
essays will have several body paragraphs.
EXAMPLE
One source that was especially useful to my research was a 2016 study
by Richard J. Lee and Ipek N. Sener that considers the intersections
between transportation planning and quality of life. They argue that,
while planners have consistently addressed physical health and well-
being in transportation plans, they have not necessarily factored in how
mental and social health contributes to quality of life. Put differently,
transportation planning has traditionally utilized a limited definition of
quality of life and this has necessarily impacted data on the relationship
between public transit and quality of life. This resource helped me
to broaden my conception of quality of life to include all aspects of
human health. It also enabled me to better understand the stakeholders
involved in transportation decisions.
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Conclusion
Your conclusion should return to the research question stated in your
introduction. What are some possible solutions to your questions,
based on the sources that you highlighted in your essay? While
you shouldn’t include new information in your conclusion, you
can discuss additional questions that arose as you were conducting
your research.
EXAMPLE
In my introduction, I asked whether public transit improves quality of

life for all, not simply for users of public transportation. My research
demonstrates that there are strong connections between public
transportation and quality of life, but that researchers differ as to how
quality of life is defined. Many conclude that public transit improves
citizens’ lives, but it is still not clear how public transit decisions affect
non-users, since few studies have focused on this distinct group. As a
result, I believe that more research is needed to answer the research
questions that I posed above.
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4.3 Narrative essay

The last type of essay we want to focus on is the narrative essay. This
will be a welcome departure for students who are used to writing
persuasive or expository essays.
What is an narrative essay?

Similar to a reflective essay, a narrative essay asks you not to advance
an argument or provide evidence to support an opinion, but rather
to share an experience. This experience can be a real, personal, and
lived experience from your own life (for example, telling the story
of your first big success) or it can be an imagined experience (for
example, telling the story of how your life would have been if you had
been born into different circumstances).
While a narrative essay doesn’t ask you to present a thesis statement,

supporting paragraphs, and a conclusion, it does still have to be
well-structured and clearly organized so that the reader can follow
your story. A good narrative essay also builds up to a meaningful
statement that goes beyond a mere listing of events and details.
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When you might be asked to write a

narrative essay
Although less common than argumentative essays or expository
essays, narrative essays are a common one in high school and college
composition classes. Because they are similar in spirit and structure
to admissions essays, descriptive essays, and personal statements,
which are frequently requested as part of the application process
to an institution of higher education, many of the same writing
techniques used to craft those kinds of essays can also be applied to
the narrative essay.
How to choose a topic for a narrative essay

The topics for narrative essays are extremely flexible, spanning pretty
much any aspect of human existence. When you are asked to write a
narrative essay, a topic may be assigned to you or you may have the
freedom to choose your own.
With an assigned topic, the prompt will fall into one of two
categories: specific or open-ended.
Examples of specific prompts:

• Write about the last vacation you took.
• Write about your final year of middle school.
Examples of open-ended prompts:

• Write about a time when you felt all hope was lost.
• Write about a brief, seemingly insignificant event

that ended up having a big impact on your life.
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It bears repeating that a narrative essay is about telling a story,

and all good stories are centered on a conflict of some sort. When
choosing your topic, take care to select one that isn’t just a mundane
event where everything worked out as intended. Experiences
with unexpected obstacles, twists, and turns make for much more
compelling essays and reveal more about your character and your
views on life.
When writing a narrative essay specifically as part of an admissions

application, remember that the people reviewing your essay will be
looking at it to gain a sense not just of your writing ability but who
you are as a person. In these cases, it’s wise to choose a topic and
experience from your life that demonstrates the qualities the prompt
is looking for, such as resilience, perseverance, the ability to stay
calm under pressure, etc.
It’s also important to remember that your choice of topic is just a

starting point. Many students find that they arrive at new ideas and
insights as they write their first draft, so the final form of your essay
may have a distinctly different focus than the one you started with.
Experiences with
unexpected obstacles,
twists and turns make for
much compelling essays.
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How to outline and format a narrative essay

Even though you’re not advancing an argument or proving a point of
view, a narrative essay still needs to have a coherent structure. Your
reader has to be able to follow you as you tell the story and to glean
the larger point you’re making.
Much of what you’ll be evaluated on is your handling of the topic and

how you structure it. Even if you’re the type of writer who likes to
“go with the flow” and see where the writing takes you, you may still
want to sketch out a loose outline to give yourself a few guideposts
so you can tell your story in a lucid, compelling way.
In outlining your narrative essay, the most basic markers to identify

are where your story will start, end, and how many key moments it
will have in between. You should also consider pace and tone.
In the vast majority of cases, a narrative essay should be written

in the first-person perspective, which is often a refreshing change
for students who are used to using an objective, third-person
point of view.
During the outlining and formatting stage, it’s also a good idea to look
for places to add rhetorical flourishes, such as metaphor and analogy,
that enhance the expressiveness and originality of your essay. To
get your creative wheels turning, try considering how your story
compares to archetypes and famous historical and literary figures
both past and present. Weave these comparisons into your essay
to improve the quality of your writing and connect your personal
experience to a larger context.
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How to write a narrative essay

Writing a narrative essay can sometimes be a challenge for students
who are used to writing in a formal, objective style. To give you a
better sense of how you can write a narrative essay, here is a short
example of a narrative essay in response to the prompt “Write about
an experience that challenged your view of yourself.”
NARATIVE ESSAY EXAMPLE:
Write about an experience that

challenged your view of yourself.
First paragraph / introduction
The first paragraph, or introduction, sets up the context, establishing
the situation and introducing the meaningful event upon which the
essay will turn.
FIRST PARAGRAPH / INTRODUCTION
Even as a child, I always had what people might call a reserved

personality. It was sometimes framed as a positive (“Sarah is a good
listener”) and at other times it was put in less-than-admiring terms
(“Sarah is withdrawn and not talkative”). It was the latter kind of
comments that caused me to see my introverted nature as a drawback
and as something I should work to eliminate. That is, until I joined my
high school’s student council.
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Body paragraphs
BODY PARAGRAPH (1)
The other four students making up the council were very outspoken
and enthusiastic. I enjoyed being around them, and I often agreed with
their ideas. However, when it came to overhauling our school’s recycling
plan, we butted heads. When I spoke up and offered a different point of
view, one of my fellow student council members launched into a speech,
advocating for her point of view. As her voice filled the room, I couldn’t
get a word in edgewise. I wondered if I should try to match her tone,
volume, and assertiveness as a way to be heard. But I just couldn’t do
it—it’s not my way, and it never has been. For a fleeting moment, I felt
defeated. But then, something in me shifted.
In this paragraph, the writer goes into greater depth about how their
existing thinking brought them to this point.
BODY PARAGRAPH (2)
I reminded myself that my view was valid and deserved to be heard.

So I waited. I let my fellow council member speak her piece and when
she was finished, I deliberately waited a few moments before calmly
stating my case. I chose my words well, and I spoke them succinctly.
Just because I’m not a big talker doesn’t mean I’m not a big thinker. I
thought of the quotation “still waters run deep” and I tried to embody
that. The effect on the room was palpable. People listened. And I hadn’t
had to shout my point to be heard.
This paragraph demonstrates the turn in the story, the moment where
everything changed. The use of the quotation “still waters run deep”
imbues the story with a dash of poetry and emotion.
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Final paragraph, conclusion
FINAL PARAGRAPH / CONCLUSION
We eventually reached a compromise on the matter and concluded the

student council meeting. Our council supervisor came to me afterward
and said: “You handled that so well, with such grace and poise. I was
very impressed.” Her words in that moment changed me. I realized, a
bombastic nature isn’t necessarily a powerful one. There is power in
quiet, too. This experience taught me to view my reserved personality
not as a character flaw, but as a strength.
The final paragraph, or conclusion, ties off the story and closes with
a statement about the significance of this event and how it ended up
changing the writer in a meaningful way.
Key takeaways about narrative essays

Narrative essays are a chance to get creative and personal, which
students may find to be a challenge or a welcome change. The key
is to focus on telling a good story and telling it well. From there, the
sky’s the limit, so take advantage of this freedom and flexibility!
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4.4 How many sentences are

in a paragraph?
Successful paragraphs help readers consistently, and naturally, follow
your argument. But sometimes it’s difficult to know just how much—
or how little—you need to include in a single paragraph. This chapter
covers the foundational elements of a successful paragraph and
includes tips for writing clear and concise sentences.
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The perfect paragraph

Ideally, each paragraph you write should introduce an idea,
support it, and then add a conclusion to it. Let’s take a
closer look at how paragraphs should be structured:
The opening sentence

The opening sentence introduces the topic of the paragraph
or indicates to the reader a change in the subject from the
previous paragraph.
The paragraph is an opportunity to signal to the reader that you are

making a new point or moving in a new direction. You can identify
which ideas are suitable for opening sentences by creating an
outline of your paper. Use the outline to pinpoint your main ideas.
The supporting statements

Once you’ve written your opening sentence, the following sentences
should support the statement you made or give the reasoning for your
argument. This part of the paragraph can also be used to describe
study results, explain key theories, or integrate source material from
your research.
Keep supporting sentences concise by using as few words as possible

to explain your ideas or the ideas of others.
The concluding sentence

The final sentence in the paragraph needs to wrap up the main idea of
the paragraph and add value to what has already been written. You can
also use your concluding sentence to lead into your next paragraph.
A concluding sentence should wrap up the main idea of the paragraph

without repeating previous information.
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Paragraph writing tips
• Put your strongest supporting statement directly after the

opening sentence. This allows the reader to go over the paragraph
at a glance and still capture the main idea.
• Cut out unnecessary words and sentences. For each sentence,

ask yourself: is this sentence essential? Also, try reading your
paragraphs aloud to yourself or to a friend or family member. This
helps you catch nonessential words, phrases, and sentences.
• Avoid single-sentence paragraphs. One-sentence paragraphs

are suitable for blog posts, but academic research papers
require more substantial paragraphs in order to fully explore
your main ideas.
• Communicate compelling ideas in clear and concise

language. To be a solid academic writer, you don’t need to write
wordy, jargon-filled sentences.
The bottom line

The structure of your paragraphs can have a significant impact on
your paper’s clarity and, by extension, your grade. Ultimately, each
paragraph should be dedicated to a single thought or idea, enhanced
by concise supporting sentences and a clear concluding statement.
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5
Bonus chapters
In order to write solid academic papers, you need

to know how to read and interpret your sources
and how to give proper credit to those sources.
The following bonus chapters provide you with
strategies for reading scholarly articles, avoiding
plagiarism, and properly formatting your citations
or references.
Formatting is especially important when it comes to

doing your references. You can have all the credible
sources in the world in your paper, but if they aren’t
formatted in the proper reference style they may
affect your overall score. This can be crippling when
you’re handing in an academic paper or another
essay type that requires a common structure and
some critical thinking.
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5.1 How to read a scholarly article

Scholarly articles, also known as journal articles, are essay-length
publications that make arguments, present research, and draw
conclusions about an idea, problem, or text. You may need to read
scholarly articles for your essay assignment or while conducting your
own original research for an essay. This can often be a daunting task,
since articles are generally written for experts. This bonus chapter
covers strategies for reading, and understanding, scholarly articles.
What is a scholarly article?

Professional researchers, professors, students, and other experts
publish scholarly articles in academic journals. These publications
feature new research, data, or analysis and allow scholars to engage
in ongoing debates within their respective fields.
Scholarly articles often contain specialized language. Also, because

scholars write articles in order to intervene within ongoing research
conversations, they assume that their readers have some knowledge
of previous scholarship.
As a result, scholarly articles can be difficult for students and new

researchers to understand. In what follows, we break down the main
components of a scholarly article and provide step-by-step advice
about how to read one with confidence.
74
The core components of a scholarly article

The easiest way to approach a scholarly article is by breaking it
down into its core components. In this section, we discuss how to
recognize the major parts of an article.
Abstract
An abstract is essentially a brief summary of a scholarly article. It
gives you a preview of an article’s main argument and conclusions.
The abstract section may also contain keywords related to an article’s
subject.
Abstracts can be particularly useful as you narrow down what

sources are most important for your research. Reading the abstract
can save you time; in many cases, an abstract can help you quickly
determine if it’s necessary to read the entire article.
75
Introduction
Like other kinds of essays, scholarly articles open with an
introduction. Depending on the length and subject of the article, an
introduction may, itself, contain several key parts:
• an introductory hook and/or overview
• a literature review or state-of-the-field
• a thesis statement
• a brief outline of what will be covered in the

main body of the article
Many scholarly articles begin with a hook: a short anecdote or

scenario that draws the reader in and gives a hint of what the article
will cover. All articles will feature some general overview of the topic
or field.
The introduction also often contains a literature review or

state-of-the-field paragraph. This section situates the article
within a given scholarly conversation and highlights what other
scholars have written on the topic. Sometimes a literature review
has its own section.
Towards the end of the introduction, the author will include a thesis
statement, often in the form of “I argue that...” or “This article argues
that...” or a similar phrase. Importantly, the thesis statement of a
typical scholarly article will likely be more than one sentence. Finally,
an introduction contains a brief outline or “signposts” of what the rest
of the article will cover.
76
Evidence and Analysis

The main body of a scholarly article includes the evidence and
analysis that an author uses to support the thesis statement. This
section will contain multiple paragraphs that balance evidence—
in the form of data, textual support, or original research—and
interpretation. As a reader, you should be able to follow along as the
author builds the article’s case.
If you are a student or researcher in the social or hard sciences, this

part of the article is where you would typically see the methods,
results, and discussion sections.
As you’re reading through the evidence and analysis paragraphs,

take note of how the author signals transitions—between both
sentences and whole paragraphs. Competent transitions that allow
the reader to clearly follow the argument are a hallmark of successful
scholarly writing.
Being able to identify the components of a typical article will

positively impact your own progression as a writer.
Conclusion
Finally, a scholarly article builds towards a conclusion. This section
may offer readers an overall review of what was covered in the article
or it may propose recommendations for further research.
If the article began with a hook or scenario, the author may also
return to the content of the introduction in order to neatly bookend
the piece. The best conclusions serve as clear and concrete finales
for the article as a whole and leave readers excited to include aspects
of the work in their own research.
77
Step-by-step reading tips

Now that we’ve covered the core components of a scholarly article,
let’s consider the steps that you might use to confidently and
efficiently read one. Remember to always take notes or annotate the
article as you read it.
Start with the abstract. First, if the article has an abstract, read
that first to determine if the primary argument of the article is in
line with your research goals.
Skim the overall contents of the article. Then, take a quick

glance at the article as a whole, including citations and
references. For example, if you know that you mainly need to look at
the literature review, a quick glance could help you easily identify that
part of the essay. This will ultimately save you time.
Read the introduction, literature review, and thesis. Once you’ve

glanced at everything, it’s time to dig in. Begin at the beginning.
Start reading the introduction, the lit review, or state-of-the-field, and
try to identify the article’s thesis. While doing so, consider
these questions:
• How does the article start? Does the author begin with a quote
or historical anecdote, for instance?
• Can you identify the thesis or primary argument of the essay?
• Where, and in what way(s), does the author make an intervention

into the existing scholarly conversation? What words or phrases
signal this intervention?
78
Asking these questions will not only help you grasp the content of
the article you’re reading, but it will also help to improve your own
reading, writing, and research skills.
Read the body of the article. Next, move on to the main body
of the article. Note what kinds of evidence the author uses to
support the thesis. Does the author provide an adequate analysis of
the evidence?
Return to the introduction. After you’ve read the main body

of the article, pause and return to the introduction. Take another
look at the thesis statement and consider the
following questions:
• Does the author plausibly connect the different strands of

analysis so that they ultimately point back to the primary thesis?
• Does the author return to the underlying argument of the article?

Where do you see this happening?
• Can you identify the “moves” that the author makes to construct
a coherent and defendable argument?
Read the conclusion. Next, it’s time to move on to the article’s

conclusion. What steps does the author take to arrive at
the conclusion? Note especially what information the author
includes in this section. Does the conclusion consider questions or
recommendations for further research?
79
Reflect on what you’ve read and how you’d respond. Finally,

take a moment to consider the article as a whole now that you’ve
finished it. If you are reading the article in preparation for your own
research paper, ask yourself how you would respond. Where, if at all,
do you see a need for expansion, disagreement, or further analysis?
Where might you intervene?
Ultimately, the best way to master reading scholarly articles is to keep

on reading! Practice helps you become not only a better reader but
also a more competent researcher and writer.
Ultimately, the best

way to master reading
scholarly articles is
to keep on reading!
80
5.2 Plagiarism and how to properly

credit your sources
You may be thinking that avoiding plagiarism is simple. It’s just a
matter of not copying and pasting other people’s work into your own
and properly citing your sources, right? Well, yes and no.
Plagiarism can take a few different forms, some obvious and some
a little more subtle. It’s even possible to plagiarize unintentionally
or accidentally.
Given how serious the consequences of plagiarism are (which we’ll

get into later in this chapter), it’s important to understand in detail
what constitutes plagiarism and how you can avoid it.
81
What is plagiarism?
Simply put, plagiarism is the act of taking
someone else’s work and presenting it as your
own. Committing plagiarism is unethical and a
breach of academic integrity.
Plagiarism is the act of

taking someone else’s work
and presenting is as your own.
The different types of plagiarism

Even though the definition of plagiarism is straightforward and
concise, the act of plagiarism can take a wide variety of forms.
Here are some of the most common types of plagiarism:
Direct plagiarism or copy-and-paste plagiarism

This is what typically comes to mind when we think of plagiarism.
It involves taking a piece or section of work created by someone
else, without putting it in quotation marks or citing the source, and
passing it off as your own.
Global plagiarism
This type of plagiarism involves taking another person’s work
wholesale and claiming it as your own. This includes having someone
else, such as a friend, family member, or classmate write work for you
as well as purchasing an essay from an essay mill.
82
Mosaic plagiarism
Taking ideas and/or pieces of text from different sources and
fitting them together to create a “mosaic” of borrowed ideas is
another common form of plagiarism, also known as patchwriting or
patchwork plagiarism.
Self-plagiarism
Reusing your own work without acknowledging that it’s been
previously submitted elsewhere is also considered plagiarism. While
some may question whether this should count as unethical, since you
are simply repurposing your own original ideas, the fact is that when
you submit scholarly work as part of your education, it is expected to
be original. Reusing old work is a violation of academic integrity.
Accidental Plagiarism
Even students with no ill intent can find themselves plagiarizing
work accidentally by failing to cite, or misquoting, their sources and
by unintentionally repeating ideas, phrases, wording, and sentence
structures from others without the appropriate attribution. It’s
important to know that accidental plagiarism is considered just as
serious an offense as any other type of plagiarism and can incur the
same consequences.
83
Examples of common types of plagiarism

Global plagiarism is relatively self-explanatory, involving the
wholesale copying of someone else’s work. Let’s examine some
examples of the other forms of plagiarism to get a sense of what they
look like in practice.
Type of plagiarism Source text Plagiarized text
Direct plagiarism “James Cameron’s 194-minute, $200 The blockbuster film Titanic is
million film of the tragic voyage is in considered a classic. James Cameron’s
the tradition of the great Hollywood 194-minute, $200 million film of the
epics. It is flawlessly crafted, tragic voyage is in the tradition of the
intelligently constructed, strongly great Hollywood epics. It is flawlessly
acted and spellbinding.” crafted, intelligently constructed,
Titanic Film Review strongly acted and spellbinding. It is no
Roger Ebert, 1997 surprise that it won several Academy
Awards the year it came out.
Mosaic plagiarism Source 1: Eyeliner has been around for at least

Over 12,000 years ago in Mesopotamia 12,000 years and possibly longer.
and Egypt, women and men of high Women and men of certain social
status used an ancient version of classes in Mesopotamia and Egypt
eyeliner to define their eyes. applied kohl to their eyes, not only as
a cosmetic, but as a way to protect
Source 2:
against the heat and wind of the desert.
As early as 10,000 BC, Egyptians
and Mesopotamians wore various
cosmetics including eyeliner not only
for aesthetics but to protect the skin
from the desert sun.
Self-plagiarism Student’s original work for one class: Student’s repurposed work for a
different class:
Hanya Yanagihara’s novel A Little Life
shows us, through the heartbreaking The heartbreaking journey of the main
character arc of Jude, the book’s character Jude in Hanya Yanagihara’s
protagonist, that some traumas are novel A Little Life is meant to show
so egregious and cut so deep that readers that some traumas are so brutal
recovery and redemption simply won’t and have such an impact that they can’t
come, at least not in this lifetime. be redeemed or recovered from in this
lifetime.
84
The potential consequences of plagiarism

Your school will have its own policies on plagiarism and academic
integrity, and it’s important to familiarize yourself with them.
In general, the consequences will depend on the type of plagiarism
that has been committed, and they can include the following:
• Receiving a failing grade on an assignment
• Receiving a failing grade in the course
• Being suspended temporarily
• Being expelled from the institution
85
How to avoid plagiarism

Avoiding plagiarism and keeping your academic record (and your
conscience) clear comes down to one basic step:
Whenever you quote, paraphrase, or

reference the words, ideas, or work of
someone else, give proper credit to the
original source with a citation.
What does and doesn’t require a citation

Before you decide to err on the side of caution and fill up your essays
with citations for every piece of information you include, you should
know that not everything needs to be cited. Information that is widely
known by most people is considered “common knowledge” and
does not need a source. Some examples of facts that are common
knowledge are:
• Singapore is the only place in the world that is

a city, an island, and a nation, all in one.
• Spandex is a synthetic fiber commonly used to

manufacture sportswear.
86
What does and doesn’t require a citation

Many citation styles exist, such as APA, MLA, and Chicago. Which
one you should use will depend on your school or field of study.
Check with your instructor to confirm if there is a preferred format
they would like you to use.
Across all styles, citations generally occur in two places in a work:
• As an in-text citation in the main text of a document
• In the reference list or works cited list
In-text citations are typically brief and require only the name of the
author and the publication year or page number of the source. The
bibliography, reference list, or works cited list contains the complete
information about the source.
Collecting and formatting citations can be tedious work. Because of

this, it’s common for students to put it off until the end of their essay
writing. Many then struggle because they realize that they still have
hours of work ahead of them to ensure their citations are accurate
and complete.
One easy way to save time and stress is to use an online citation
generator like BibGuru. BibGuru makes the process fast, easy, and
headache-free—all you have to do is drop in the URL of the website
or search for the title of the journal article or book you’re citing and
BibGuru does the rest.
However you choose to approach your citations, it’s essential to make

sure that you’ve given credit where it is due and that the work you
present as your own is original and authentic.
87
5.3 How to use BibGuru

Writing a good essay is challenging enough. Many different parts
and skills come together and are combined to create a solid piece
of writing. One critical part of an essay is finding quality sources,
properly giving credit to sources, and understanding their relevance.
Citations are crucial in every essay to avoid plagiarism and the
consequences that come with it.
We believe that students should be able to focus on the content

of their writing, rather than wasting time on manual data entry or
complex citation rules. That’s why we’ve created BibGuru, a simple,
fast, and accurate citation generator.
To create a citation with BibGuru, go to www.bibguru.com, and click

on “Get started now”. You don’t even need to create an account to be
able to use BibGuru.
Whether you need a bibliography for APA or a works cited page for
MLA, BibGuru has got you covered. Select a citation style: you can
choose between the most popular styles like APA, MLA, Harvard,
Chicago, or many other citation styles.
88
Add your
sources with a
simple click
Easily find your sources

using our searchbar
Pick your citation style
89
Our team has double-checked every rule of those referencing

guidelines to make sure BibGuru provides the most accurate
computer-generated citations to date.
You can cite books, journal articles, or websites directly through the
searchbar at the top. Or, click “More” to select another source type
from the drop-down menu.
Once you have collected all the references in your list, you can copy
and paste them over to your document or simply download them as a
Word file.
Creating citations has never been easier!
Copy your bibliography

to your document
Click here to watch our video

tutorial on using BibGuru
90
5.4 Helpful resources

The following resources offer tips and strategies for creating accurate
citations and provide you with more information about college essay
writing and formatting.
General citation help

BibGuru citation generator
Purdue online writing lab
APA Guides
The ultimate guide to citing in APA
University of Washington Libraries APA Guide
Boston College Libraries APA Guide
Bowling Green State University Libraries APA Guide
University of Texas at Arlington Libraries APA Guide
University of Nevada, Reno Libraries APA Guide
91
MLA Guides
The ultimate guide to citing in MLA
California State University, Dominguez Hill Library MLA Guide
Spartanburg Community College Library MLA Guide
California State University, Northside Library MLA Guide
Columbia College Library MLA Guide
Taft College Library MLA Guide
Further resources on academic writing and

formatting
What is an annotated bibliography
What is a parenthical citation
APA title page: format and templates
MLA title page: format and templates
University of Washington Libraries Academic Writing Guide
Seminole State College Library Academic Writing Guide
92
This book is brought to you by Paperpile. Founded in 2013,
Paperpile is a full-fledged reference management solution
used by tens of thousands of researchers worldwide.
With BibGuru, we bring the unique experience of our

company to K-12 and undergraduate students:
• Organize all your sources systematically for more

structured papers
• Create accurate citations and bibliographies in all

common citation styles like APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago,
or your in-house university style
‘How to write a college essay’
Written and edited by: Dzemila Okanovic and Amy Mallory-Kani
Design and illustrations: Nina Vukadin
© 2021 Paperpile LLC
Any questions? Contact hello@bibguru.com
This book is licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0

International License (CC BY-NC 4.0) available at
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
For non-commercial purposes you are free and encouraged to:

share and redistribute the material in any medium or format.
Adapt, remix, transform, and build upon the material.
Please don’t forget to give us appropriate credit and a link to

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How to write a

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How can this ebook help you?

It’s important to remember that writing is a process and, like any

2. Writing your essay

3. Revising your essay

4. Essay writing tips and examples

Before you start

1.1 Preparation for writing an essay

Do not put off reading over your assignment

Ask questions until you are sure

Many students lose points on assignments because they didn’t fully

• What is the goal of the essay?

• How long should it be?

• What’s the deadline?

• Which format should the essay be in?

• How many sources are required?

• Is there any aspect of the task that

• Does the professor have any other

Come up with a thesis statement for your essay

A good thesis statement needs to do the following:

• Write the answer to the main question of your topic

• Clearly state your position in relation to the topic

• Do not state the obvious. Give a disputable stance

As previously mentioned, your thesis statement should answer a

If the question is:

A good thesis statement restates the question and answers it:

Here is another example. If the question is:

How can we end poverty?

A good thesis statement should give at least one solution to the

Plan for extra time to revise and

Although revision and proofreading are important steps in the writing

1.2 Types of essays

Here is an overview of the different types of essays that you may

Example prompt for an admissions essay:

Example prompt for an analytical essay:

Example prompt for an argumentative essay:

Compare and Contrast essay

Example prompt for a compare and contrast essay:

Example prompt for an exploratory essay:

Example prompt for an expository essay:

Example prompt for a narrative essay:

Personal essay/Personal statement

Example prompt for a personal essay

Example prompt for a persuasive essay:

Example prompt for a reflective essay:

The first step in writing a good essay is choosing what

Writing your essay

2.1 Writing your essay outline

The advantages of working on a paper outline first are numerous;

Before writing your outline

To write a strong outline, you’ll ultimately need to make sure you’ve

The basic parts of essay outlines

• A strong introduction and thesis statement

• A body, or arguments and counterarguments

• A conclusion that reiterates the thesis statement

Your outline should ideally be structured so that your arguments are

Remember to check carefully for any repetitive ideas or statements

Ask yourself, is my outline grammatically correct and consistent?

Formatting your essay outline

The majority of essays are structured using an alphanumeric

If there is no specific requirement, you can use the system of your

The alphanumeric structure is a common type of outline formatting