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Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

First Semester, School Year 2020-2021
CE 112
Chemistry for Engineers
I. MODULE 2. Energy and Chemistry

II. Introduction
If you list application of chemistry that are important in your life, many of them would be likely to
involve energy and energy transformation. The burning of fuels is an application of chemical
combustion. All the batteries used to power portable electrical devices are based on chemical
reactions as well.
Energy use is closely connected to a broad array of societal, economic, and political factors. This
module will take a closer look at energy and its role in chemistry focusing on its production and its
use.
III. Learning Outcomes/Objectives
After mastering this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain the economic importance of conversions between different forms of energy and the
inevitability of losses in this process.
2. Define work and heat using the standard sign conventions.
3. Define state functions and explain their importance.
4. State the first law of thermodynamics in words and as an equation.
5. Use calorimetric data to obtain values for △E and △H for chemical reactions.
6. Define ΔHf ° and write formation reactions for compounds.
7. Explain Hess’s law in your own words.
8. Calculate ΔH° for chemical reactions from tabulated data.
9. Describe some important design considerations in choosing a battery for a specific application.
IV. Leaning Content: Energy and Chemistry
A. ENERGY
A.1. What is energy
Most people have an intuitive feel for the concept of energy, and the word is used every day.
Breakfast cereals advertise their ability to provide energy in the morning. In sports, substitute players
are described as boosting their team’s energy. The energy crisis brought on by oil embargoes in the
1970s is a critical component of the history of that decade, and energy remains central to important
political issues in the 21st century. This widespread use of the concept of energy underscores its
importance. It also suggests that one needs to be very careful in defining energy and related terms
because it is apparent that in casual use the word “energy” conveys many related but subtly different
meanings.
ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

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Energy is defined as the ability to do useful work.
A2. Kinds and Forms of Energy
a.2.1. Kinds of Energy
Energy can be categorized into two kinds: potential energy and kinetic energy.
Potential energy is associated with the relative position of an object. It is the energy of
the mass relative to its position.
Kinetic energy is associated with motion. It is the energy of a mass by virtue of its
motion. When a roller coaster heads down the first hill, it transforms potential energy into
kinetic energy.
A mathematical definition for the potential and kinetic energy of an object in terms of
its mass (m) and velocity (v) is given below:
1 1 1
Kinetic energy = Ek = mv2 = m(v22-v21) = mΔv2 (Eq. 1)
2 2 2
Potential energy = Ep = mgΔh (Eq. 2)
where: m = mass, kg
m
v = velocity,
s
m
v1, v2 = initial and final velocities,
s
g =gravitational acceleration
m ft cm
= 9.80 2=32.2 2= 980 2
s s s Fig. 1. A concept to remember
Δh = (h2-h1)= difference in height, m potential energy formula
h1, h2 = initial and final height of the https://mrmackenzie.co.uk/
body
A roller coaster as an example shows kinetic and potential energy on a macroscopic

scale . But on a microscopic level , all substances and objects are composed of atoms and
molecules. These atoms and molecules have kinetic energy associated with their constant
motion, and they have potential energy due to the various forces they exert on one another.
The combined kinetic and potential energies of the atoms and molecules that make up an
object constitute its internal energy . Thus, the roller coaster cars have three basic kinds of
energy : kinetic (from their motion), potential (from their position relative to the ground), and
internal (from the molecules that compose the materials from which they are made).
Much of the internal energy of an object, be it a roller coaster car or a piece of coal, is
associated with thepotential energy arising from the relative positions of the atoms that make
up the object.
Illustrative Problem (Kinetic Energy) . How fast (in m/s) must an iron ball with a mass
of 56.6 g be travelling in order to have a kinetic energy of 15.75 J. The density of the ball is
g
7.87 .
cm3
g
Given : An iron ball: m = 56.6 g Density, D = 7.87
cm3
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Kinetic Energy = 15.75 J
Required : velocity of the ball to posses the 15.75 J kinetic energy

Solution :
1
Ek = m v2
2
kg-m2
(1 )
2(15.75 J) s2 1000g m2
v2 = x x = 556.537
56.6 g 1J 1kg s2
v = 23.6 m/s
Illustrative Problem (Potential Energy). Determine the potential energy of the same ball in the
IP above when it is dropped from a from the top of a water fall 100 ft high. Express answer in
SI, CGS and English units.
Given : Iron ball: m = 56.6 g = 0.0566 kg
1m
Waterfall = 100 ft high h1 = 0 ft h2 = 100 ft x = 30.5 m = 3050 cm
3.28 ft
Required: Potential energy of the ball

Solution : a) Ep = mgΔh
Ep = mg(h2 - h1)
1 kg m
Ep = 56.6gx x 9.8 2 (30.5-0)m
1000 g s
2
kg∙m 1J
102 Ep = 16.9 x = 16.9 Jx ( 1 BTU/1055J) Note: 1 BTU = 1055 J
s2 kg∙m2
s2
cm
21001 b) Ep = 56.6g x (980 ) (0-3050)cm
s2
Ep = 1,691,77,400 ergs ≈ 1.69 x 109 ergs Note: 1 J = 10,000,000 ergs
1 lb ft
c) Ep = 56.6gx x[32.174 2 ](0-100)ft Note: 1 lb =454g g
454 g s
ft- lb 1 BTU
Ep = 401.1 2 x Note: 1 BTU = 778 ft-lbf
s 778 ft∙lbf
Ep = 0.52 BTU
ft
Note: poundforce = lbmass x gravitational acceleration or lbf = lbm x.
s2
Illustrative Problem. A lump of ice falls from an airplane as it comes in to land. If the ice hits
the ground with a vertical speed of 85m/s, what was the height of the plane when the ice fell
off? (Assume that friction can be ignored).
Given : A lump of ice fall from an airplane

Hits the ground atv = 85 m/s vertically
Required: Height of the plane when the ice fell off
Solution: The LCE says that energy is transformed from one form to another or Energy is
preserved
The Ek of the ice as it hits the ground = the initial Ep of the ice when it fell off the plane
Ek = Ep
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1 2
mv = mgΔh = mg(h2 - h1) Note: m can be cancelled out bec it is the same
2
1 2 2
(v -v ) = g(h2-h1)
2 2 1
ice being referred to.
1
(852-02) m2 /9.8 m2 = (h2-0)
2 s2 s
1
h2 = 9.8 x ( )(7225) m
2
h2 = 361.2 m
Grasping the Concept
1. A box has a mass of 5.8kg. The box is lifted from the garage floor and placed on a
shelf. If the box gains 145J of Potential Energy (Ep), how high is the shelf?
2. A rabbit and a rat are running with the same kinetic energy. Which one do you think is
going faster?
3. Calculate the kinetic energy of a 0.50 g object moving with a speed of 5 m/s. What is
the difference in kinetic energy if the speed is doubled?
a.2.2. Forms of Energy
It useful to have more specific terms for various forms of energy. The making or
breaking of chemical bonds changes the potential energy. In most chemical reactions, bonds
are broken in the reactants and new bonds are formed in the products. If the amount of
energy liberated in bond making is greater than that used in bond breaking, the overall
process releases energy . This energy release is often referred to as chemical energy , and the
harnessing of chemical energy is an important aspect of the overlap between chemistry and
engineering.
Radiant energy (solar or light) is associated with light or electromagnetic radiation. The
radiant energy of the Sun is ultimately responsible for the majority of energy resources on this
planet. Mechanical energy is associated with the movement of macroscopic objects. Thermal
energy arises from the temperature of an object. (One can associate thermal energy with the
molecular level motion of atoms and molecules.) Electrical energy results from moving
charge—usually electrons in a metal. Nuclear energy , which can be released in nuclear fusion
and fission processes, is a form of potential energy associated with the arrangement of
protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei.
A.3. Heat and Work
All energy flow is either heat or work. One needs to understand the forms of energy transfer
to assess the energy economy of the world and the role of chemistry in that economy.
Heat is the flow of energy between two objects, from the warmer one to the cooler one,
because of a difference in their temperatures. Thus, strictly speaking, heat is a process and not a
quantity. It is often routinely heard such statement as “turn up the heat.” BUT heat is not an entity that
can be pumped into a room or a cup of coffee. An object does not possess heat. In a strictly scientific
sense, a furnace does not produce heat but rather a body of warm air or hot water that has a higher
temperature than the cool air in a room. What emerges from the vent on the floor is not “heat,” but
warm air. Although these distinctions are essentially semantic, they can be very important in many
cases.
Work is the second form of energy transfer. Work is the transfer of energy accomplished by a
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force moving a mass some distance against resistance. Lifting a set of roller coaster cars up a hill
against the pull of gravity is an example of work. In macroscopic level examples, it is typically viewing
work in terms of mechanical energy. Work, however, encompasses a wider range of phenomena than
just mechanical movement of macroscopic objects. The most common type of work encountered in
chemical processes is pressure-volume work (PV -work). When a gas expands, it can do work. An
example is an inflated balloon. If an inflated balloon is released before it is tied off, it flies around as
the gas inside the balloon expands into the large volume of the room. Because the flying balloon has
mass, it is easy to see that the expanding gas is doing work on the balloon: this is pressure-volume
work.
For a more productive example of work being done by a chemical reaction, the burning of
gasoline in a car engine is an excellent one. Gasoline is actually a complex mixture of hydrocarbons.
The energy needed to propel a car is released by the combustion of those hydrocarbons in the engine
cylinders.
Hydrocarbon + O2(g) = CO2(g) + CO(g) + H2O(g) AH = ?

C8H18
Hydrocarbon + O2(g) = CO2(g) + H2O(g) AH = ?
This combustion produces carbon dioxide and water vapor, and those gases do PV - work as they
expand against the piston in the cylinder. This PV-work is then transmitted through the drive train to
move the car.
A.4. Units of Energy
There is a wide variety of units to be used when measuring and discussing energy. Various
disciplines of science and engineering tend to favor particular choices of units.
2 2
The SI unit of energy is the joule (J), and 1 joule is equal to 1 kg m /s . Work have units of
energy.Work is force times distance (displacement), andforce is mass times acceleration.
Work = Force x distance W=Fxs (Eq. 3)

Force = mass × acceleration F = ma (Eq. 4)
Work = Mass × acceleration x distance W = mas (Eq. 5)
Dimensional analysis:
m
W = mas m = mass, kg a =acceleration, s = distance, m
s2
m
W = (kg ∙ )∙m
s2
kg ∙ m2 kg ∙ m2
W= ,joule Note: 1 joule = 1
s2 s2
How large is a joule? Ajoule is roughly the amount of energy it takes to raise a 1-kg of matter
1 m high. On a molecular level, a joule is a very large amount of energy; breaking a single chemical
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bond typically requires only about 10 J. But it is seldom that only one bond is broken at a time. At a
reaction from the macroscopic viewpoint, the smallest amount of bonds broken is a mole of bonds . 1
23
mole of molecules of matter contains 6.022 x 10 molecules of that matter. This number is called
the Avogadro’s number. In that case, a joule becomes so small a unit, so, a kilojoule or kJ (or kJ/mol)
is used. 1 kJ is equal to 1000 joules. Breaking one mole of a C-H bonds, for example, requires about
410 kJ.
Some older units for energy were defined based on some readily observable property. The
BTU (British thermal unit), which is still widely used in several engineering disciplines, was first
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defined as the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1°F. The calorie
was originally defined as the amount of energy required to heat 1 g of water from 14.5 to 15.5°C.
The joule has become the most widely accepted unit for energy, and so these other units are
now defined in terms of it. A calorie is now defined as 4.184 J, and a BTU is defined as 1055 J. A
source of frequent confusion in comparing energy units is that the Calorie reported for foods is
actually a kilocalorie. (The food Calorie should be written with an uppercase “C.”) Thus, 1 Calorie is
actually equivalent to 4184 J, or 4.184 kJ.
A.5. Energy Transformation and Conservation of Energy
Not all forms of energy are equally useful. In many cases it is desirable to transform them
into multiple “useful” forms. For example, the lighting in a room is provided by electricity; but that
electricity was probably generated by the release of chemical energy through the combustion of
coal. The chemical energy released from burning coal is converted to electrical energy which is
conveyed to the room where your light bulbs convert it into radiant energy.
The first and foremost constraint on energy transformation is that the total energy must
be conserved. If a proper accounting for all energy conversions and energy transfer processes, the
total amount of energy present must remain constant.
To account properly for all types of energy, two things are important:
a. One must specify precisely what is being studied.

The system is the part of the universe that is being studied. Everything outside the
system is considered the surroundings . The imaginary layer that separates the system
and the surroundings is called the boundary . The totality of the three parts is called the
universe .
b. Identify the mode and dynamics of energy transfer
The boundary may be a physical container or might be a more abstract separation. But one
must be consistent; the same choice of system and surroundings must be used throughout a
particular problem. Once an appropriate choice of a system has been made, the concept of
conservation of energy immediately becomes useful.
a.5.1. Modes of Energy Transfer
Heat and work are the ONLY possible forms of energy transfer one can attribute to the
overall change in energy, ΔE, of a system. Heat is commonly designated as q and work as w and
ΔE is:
ΔE = q + w (Eq. 6)
The symbol Δ (delta) is introduced here as a notation meaning “the change in.” This symbol,
which will be used frequently in the study of thermodynamics, is always defined as the difference
between the final state and the initial state.
For all systems: ΔE = Efinal – Einitial (Eq. 7)

For chemical reactions as a system: ΔE = EProducts – Ereactants (Eq. 8)
a.5.2. Convention of Energy Transfer

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The signs for the quantities of heat and work in the equation must be determined by
convention: the energy transferred into a system is given a positive sign and energy flowing out of
a system carries a negative sign. Thus, when heat flows into a system from the surroundings, the
value of q is positive , and when work is done on a system , the value of w is positive . Conversely,
when heat flows out of a system or work is done by the system on the surroundings, q and w will
Fig. 2. Sign convention for q and w TO and Fig.3. Energy transfer between the system and
FROM the system. di
be negative .
A system can change its internal energy in two ways:
1. By losing some energy to the surroundings.
EFinal < Einitial ΔE < 0
2. By gaining some energy from the Surroundings
EFinal > Einitial ΔE > 0
Some examples of Heat and Work Transfer
1. A hot soup in a bowl on top of a table: q is transferred from the soup (system) to the bowl
(boundary), air and table (surrounding)
Heat is the energy transferred between a system and its surrounding as a result of a
difference in their T only.
2. A man kicks a football. If the man is the system, the football is part of the surrounding.
Then energy is transferred as W to move the ball.
3. An inflated balloon: The gas inside the balloon is the system. It exerts a force on the inside
wall of the balloon and nearby air (surrounding) and does work to move the walls outward.
Illustrative Problem (IP) 1. If 515 J of heat is added to a gas that does 218 J of work as a
result, what is the change in the energy of the system?
Given : q = 515 J added to a gas
w = 218 J work done by the gas
Required : Change in the energy of the system,
Solution : Let the gas be the system
ΔE = q + w
Analysis: Energy flow occurs as either heat or work

q = + 515 J (q > 0 or q is + since it is added to the gas (system)
w = - 218 J (w is – since the work is done by the system…to the surrounding)

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ΔE = q + w = +515 J + (–218 J)
= +515 J – 218 J
= +297 J
Note: a. In most cases when a value is positive, the “+” sign is not placed in front of the
number.
b. There is the NEED to consider the signs of q and w carefully.
A 408 J of work is done on a system that releases 185 J of heat. a) What is the energy
change in the system? b) In the IP #1, it can be seen that ΔE is not zero. How can this be
consistent with the idea that energy must be conserved?
a.5.3. How is Energy Conserved Between the System and Its Surroundings
Following the sign conventions for q and w allows for the internal energy (ΔE) of the
system to be offset precisely by a change in the surroundings. This way, the internal energy of the
universe remains constant.
ΔEsurroundings = - ΔEsystem (Eq. 9)

ΔEUniverse = ΔEsurroundings + ΔEsystem (Eq. 10)
This is exactly the first law of thermodynamics. Energy can be transformed from one form to
another but cannot be created or destroyed.
a.5.4. Energy Transfer as Heat Only
For systems where energy is transferred as heat only, the system does no work. Hence, w
= 0.
ΔE = q + w = q + 0
ΔE = q (Eq. 11)
Two possibilities:
1. Heat is flowing out from the system

Ex. Hot water in a beaker system : the hot water
Surrounding : the beaker, air and lab
The water transferS energy to the system as heat
The system’s energy decreases as heat flows out
Final energy of the system is < itS initial energy
Heat is lost by the system, so q = - and ΔE = -
2. Heat is flowing into the system

Example: Water in a cellophane put inside a refrigerator
System : The Water
Surrounding : the confines of the refrigerator
What happens: Water gains energy as heat from the surrounding until the T of the
water
equals that of the surroundings
Energy is transferred to the system
The final energy of the system > its initial energy; so q = + and ΔE = +

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Understanding the Concept

Write something about: 1. Case A: A piece of food is put in a refrigerator.
2. Case B. A piece of food in a hot oven.
a.5.5. Energy Transfer as Work Only
q=0 ΔE = w + q = w + 0
ΔE = w (Eq. 12)
There are also two possibilities:
1. Work is DONE BY the system

Ex. A reaction in an insulated container attached to THE inside a piston-cylinder
assembly
+ - 2+ -
Zn(s) + 2H (aq) + Cl (aq) = H2 (g) + Zn (aq) + 2Cl (aq)
System: The atoms making up the substances

+ -
Initially : ΔEsystem = ΔEReactants in the form of Zn(s) + 2H (aq) + Cl (aq)
ions
Final state : ΔEsystem = ΔEProducts same atoms in the products
What happens: As H2 forms, some ΔE is used by the system to do work on the

surroundings and
PUSH THE PISTON UPWARD.
Energy is lost by the system as work, so,w = - and ΔE = -
H2 is doing a Pressure-Volume work (PV-work)[A PV-work is a type of
work
in which a volume changes against and external pressure.
The work done here is not very useful because it simply pushes back
the piston
and outside air.
2. Work DONE ON the system

If external pressure is increased in the piston-cylinder assembly, the system GAINS
energy BECAUSE WORK IS DONE ON THE SYSTEM by the surroundings.
w=+ ΔEsystem = +
a.5.6. Summary of Sign Convention for w, q and Final State ΔE
q + w = ΔE
+ + = +
+ - = Depends on the values of q and w
- + = Depends on the values of q and w
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- - = -
q = + means system gains heaT w = + Work is done on the system
q = - means system loses heat w = - Work is done by the system.
A.6. Resolving the Energy Issue

ASS: MAKE A WRITE UP (2 PARAGRAPHS MINIMUM) ON THE ISSUE: IS THERE AN ENERGY
CRISISIN THE PHILIPPINES OR IS THERE NOT? TAKE ONE SIDE AND ARGUE YOUR CASE
Waste energy is the part of energy in the form of heat that is not utilized but which dissipates
into the atmosphere. The complete conversion of heat to useful work depends totally upon the
means by which the conversion is done. But there is no perfect machine that can accomplish this.
This leads to the second law of thermodynamics
One common way to obtain work from a system is to heat it: heat flows into the
system and the system does work. But in practice, the amount of heat flow will always exceed the
amount of useful work achieved. The excess heat may contribute to thermal pollution. (Thermal
pollution is the raising or lowering of water temperature in streams, lakes, or oceans above or
below normal seasonal ranges from the discharge of hot or cold waste streams into the water.)
The efficiency of conversion from heat to work can be expressed as a percentage.
New technologies are developed to reduce the wasted energy from, say, an appliance.
But even with the best technology available, energy generation will still always result in energy
being lost as heat. The output is always less than the input. Some equipment and their efficiencies
are listed in the table below:
Table 1. Comparison of efficiencies of different equipment used for work generation.

=============================================================================
Device Energy conversion Typical efficiency, %
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Electric heater Electrical to thermal ~100
Hair drier Electrical to thermal ~100
Electric generator Mechanical to electrical 95
Electric motor (large) Electrical to mechanical 90
Battery Chemical to electrical 90
Steam boiler (power plant) Chemical to thermal 85
Electric motor (small) Electrical to mechanical 65
Automobile engine Chemical to mechanical 25
Fluorescent lamp Electrical to light 20
Silicon solar cell Solar to electrical 15
============================================================================
A.7. Heat Capacity and Calorimetry
Heat or energy is may be an abstract concept to many. But concretizing these concepts can
be done measuring systematically energy flow. This can be worked by observing heat flow into or
out of a system through a set of techniques collectively called calorimetry.
a.7.1 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
Different systems will absorb different amounts of energy based onthree main factors :
1. Amount of material
Case: A glass of water vs the water in a lake
2. Type of material (sand vs water in the ocean)
3. Temperature change (sand in a beach: sunny day vs. cloudy day)

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This idea can easily be expressed as an equation. Two options for expressing the amount
of material:
1. By mass
2. by moles
Either choice leads to a usable equation in terms of mass and change in temperature
using term called the specific heat capacity, c, which is usually simply called the specific heat.
q = mcΔT (Eq. 13)
where: q = the specific heat in terms of mass, J

m = mass, kg
J J
c = specific heat capacity, o or
kg∙ C kg∙K
o
ΔT = difference in temperature, K or C
Specific heat is a physical property of a material that measures how much heat is
required to raise the temperature of one gram of that material by 1°C.
Molar heat capacity is a physical property that describes how much heat is required to
raise the temperature of one mole of a substance by 1°C.
q = nCpΔT (Eq. 14)
where: q = the specific heat in terms of mole, J

= amount of heat needed to change the temperature
n = moles =m/MW
J J
Cp = specific heat capacity, o or
mol∙ C mol∙K
o
ΔT = difference in temperature, K or C
Note: >Cp indicates the value is measured at constant pressure

> At constant volume, C = Cv
>ΔT can correctly be written as either 10°C or 10 K
>q depends ONLY in the temperature difference and not on temperature
Table 2. Specific heat and molar heat capacities for some common substances
======================================================================
Substance Specific Heat, c Molar Heat Capacity, Cp
( J∙g–1 K–1 ) ( J∙mol–1 K–1)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Al(s) 0.900 24.3
Cu(s) 0.385 24.5
H2O(s) 2.09 37.7
H2O(ℓ) 4.18 75.3
H2O(g) 2.03 36.4
======================================================================
Illustrative Problem. Heating a 24.0-kg aluminum can raise its temperature by 15.0°C. Find
the value of q for the can.

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Given : Al can m = 24.0 g T1 = ? T2 = ?

o
ΔT = T2 - T1 = (T2 + 273.15) - (T1 + 273.15))K = 15.0 C = 15.0 K
ΔT = 15oC + 273.15 = 288.15 K
Required: q
Solution : q = mcΔT
J
q = 24.0 g(0.900 (15.0)K
g-K
q = 324 J
NRe = Reynold’s number

Illustrative Problem . The molar heat capacity of liquid water is 75.3 J/mol K. If 37.5 g of
water is cooled from 42.0 to 7.0°C, what is q for the water?
J
Given : Liquid Water Cp = 75.3 m = 37.5 g
mol∙K
Cooled from T1 = 42.0oC to T2 = 7.0oC
Required : q
w
Solution :n = w = weight or mass MW = molecular weight or mass
MW
1
Or n = w x
MW
w
q =n Cp ΔT = ( ) Cp (T2 -T1)
MW
1 mol J
q = 37.5 gx x75.3 ((7.0+273.15)-(42.0+273.15))K
18 g mol∙K
(7-42)K
q = - 5.648 kJ = -5,648 J
AT = 7 - 42 = 35oC +273.15 = 308.15K
K = oC + 273.15
The negative value indicates that the system (in this case, the water) has lost energy to the
surroundings.
Illustrative Problem. A glass contains 250.0 g of warm water at 78.0°C. A piece of gold at
2.30°C is placed in the water. The final temperature reached by this system is 76.9°C. What
was the mass of gold? The specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g °C, and that of gold is 0.129
J/g °C.
Given: Warm water in a glass m = 250.0 g T = 78.0oC

A piece of gold put in the water T = 2.30oC
o
Final temperature of the system, T2 = 76.9 C
J
Specific heat of water,Cp = 4.184 o specific heat of gold, Cp = 0.129
g∙ C
J
o
g∙ C
Required: mass of the gold
Solution: Assume that heat flows ONLY between the gold and the water. The temperature of
the water
will decrease and that of gold will increase until the system equilibriate:
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Heat absorbed by the gold = heat lost by water

-qwater = qgold
-(mCΔT)water = (mCΔT)gold
J o J o
-250.0 g x 4.184 o (76.9 - 78.0) C = m x 0.129 o (76.9 - 2.30) C
g∙ C g∙ C
mgold = 120 g
1. A block of iron weighing 207. g absorbs 1.50 kJ of heat. What is the change in the
temperature of the iron?
2. If 226 kJ of heat increases the temperature of 47.0 kg of copper by 12.5°C, what is the
molar heat capacity of copper?
3. A 125-g sample of cold water and a 283-g sample of hot water are mixed in an
insulated thermos bottle and allowed to equilibrate. If the initial temperature of the
cold water is 3.0°C, and the initial temperature of the hot water is 91.0°C, what will be
the final temperature?
a.7.2 Calorimetry STOPPED HERE 4/5/22 BSABE 1-2
Calorimetry is the term used to describe the measurement of heat flow. Experiments
are carried out in devices called calorimeters The heat evolved or absorbed by the system of
interest is determined by measuring the temperature change in its surroundings. Every effort is
made to isolate the calorimeter thermally, preventing heat flow between the immediate
surroundings and the rest of the universe. If the instrument is thermally isolated from the rest of
the universe, the only heat flow that must be considered is that between the system being studied
and the immediate surroundings, whose temperature can be measured.
A two-step process is used to make a calorimetric measurement. The first step is

calibration in which a known amount of heat is generated in the apparatus. The second step is the
actual measurement, in which we determine the amount of heat absorbed or released in the
reaction of a known amount of material.
Known amount of heat = calorimeter constant × ΔT

q = Ccalorimeter × ΔT (Eq.15)
Note: The calorimeter constant is the heat capacity of a particular object (or set of
objects) rather than that of a material.
In the case of a bomb calorimeter, the calorimeter constant is largely attributable
to the water that surrounds the bomb but also includes the heat capacities of the
thermometer, the stirring system, and the bomb itself.

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Fig. 4. A bomb calorimeter is

Illustrative Problem . A calorimeter is to be used to compare the a fairly complicated piece of
energy content of some fuels. In the calibration of the equipment. But the general
calorimeter, an electrical resistance heater supplies 100.0 J of premise of the device is
heat and a temperature increase of 0.850 oC is observed. Then simply to carry out a reaction
0.245 g of a particular fuel is burned in this same calorimeter, at constant volume and with
and the temperature increases by 5.23oC. Calculate the energy no heat flow between the
density of this fuel, which is the amount of energy liberated per calorimeter and the outside
gram of fuel burned. world.
Given: A calorimeter under calibration

Step 1. Determine the calorimeter constant
Step 2. Determine the heat evolved from a sample
Data: heat supplied by heater = 100.0 J T increase = 0.850oC
Test sample: m = 0.245 g T increase = 5.23 oC
Required: Energy density of the sample
Solution:
Step1: Calibration
q = Ccalorimeter x ΔT
q
Ccalorimeter =
ΔT
100.0 J J
Ccalorimeter = o = 118 o
0.850 C C
Step 2: Determination of heat evolved by fuel

qcalorimeter = Ccalorimeter x ΔT
J
= 118 o x 5.23oC
C
= 615 J
Revision: 01
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qfuel = - qcalorimeter = - 615J since the fuel releases heat
Calculating energy density:
q
Energy density = -( )fuel (Eq. 16)
m
-615 J
= -( )
0.245 g
J
= 2.51
g

The combustion of naphthalene (C10H8), which releases 5150.1kj/mol, is often use to
calibrate calorimeters. A 1.05-g sample of naphthalene is burned in a calorimeter,
producing a temperature rise of 3.86oC. Burning a 1.83-g sample of coal in the same
calorimeter causes a temperature change of 4.90oC. What is the energy density of the
coal?
A.8. Enthalpy
The concept of the heat flow is reasonably intuitive. The conditions under which heat flow
occurs will have an impact on the measurements that are made. For example, when one mole of
octane, C8H18, burns to form gaseous carbon dioxide and liquid water under constant volume
conditions, 5.45 X 103 kJ of heat is released. The same reaction under constant pressure
conditions releases 5.48 X 103 kJ.
Why do the two cases release different amounts of heat, and how can we account for
these differences properly?
a.8.1. Defining Enthalpy
Heats of reaction depend on reaction conditions. This is shown in the definition of

internal energy. From the definition of internal energy, it can be shown that under constant
volume conditions, the change in internal energy equals the heat flow.
ΔE = q + w
In chemical reactions, w is usually considered as only PV-work . When a gas expands, it

does an amount of work equal to PΔV on its surroundings. But if the expanding gas is our
system andw to be the work done on the gas:
w = – PΔ(V)
ΔE = q – PΔ(V) (Eq. 17)
This equation now shows how internal energy is related to heat.

If the volume is held constant,ΔV = V2–V1 = 0
ΔE = qv (Eq. 18)
qv = denote that the equation is correct only under constant volume

conditions
When pressure is constant (P = k), a new function that is equal to the heat flow at
constant pressure condition is called enthalpy (H)
Revision: 01
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H = E + PV (Eq. 19)
ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV)
ΔH = (q – PΔV) + Δ(PV)
IfP = k, ΔH = q - PΔV + PΔV (Eq. 20)
ΔH = qp (Eq. 21)
Two ways to define heat flow into a system, under two different sets of conditions.
a. For a process at constant volume: ΔE = qv
b. For a process at constant pressure: ΔH = qp
Enthalpy is most useful term because constant pressure conditions are more common.
Thus, when one refers to the heat of a process, it is typically a change in enthalpy, ΔH.
Change in enthalpy can be written: ΔH = Hfinal - Hinitial
ΔH = - (ΔH < 0) heat is evolved or process is exothermic

ΔH = + (ΔH > 0) heat is absorbed or process is endothermic
a.8.2. ΔH of Phase Change
Heat flow into a substance does not always raise its temperature.
o
Ex. H2O(s)→H2O(l) at same T of 0 C…there is a heat flow
Reason : IMF or intermolecular forces are more extensive in a solid than in a liquid. So,
as the ice cube melts, energy must be expended to overcome some of the intermolecular
attractions. The internal energy of liquid water is higher than that of solid ice, even though
both are at the same temperature.
Hence, there will be heat flow in any phase change. The phase changes generally take
place at constant pressure, so the corresponding heat flows is viewed as changes in
enthalpy
Some phase change enthalpies have specific names and symbols assigned to them:
a. Theheat of fusion ( ΔHfus.) is theheat required to melt a substance .
b. The enthalpy change for converting a liquid to gas is known as the heat of
vaporization , ΔHvap. The heat of vaporization will always be positive.
c. The reverse process,condensation , have ΔHcon which will always release heat.
ΔHvap = -ΔHcon .
Table 3. Standard molar enthalpies and temperatures for phase changes of water
========================================================================
Phase
Change Fusion Freezing Vaporization
Condensation
Transition 0oC 0oC 100oC 100oC

Temperature
Revision: 01
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4
ΔH (J/mole) ΔHfus = 6009.5 ΔHfreeze = - 6009.5 ΔHvap = 4.97 x 10 ΔHcond = - 4.07
x 104
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig, 5. Microscopic level views of

solid, liquid, and gas phases
are shown, along with the
terms commonly used for the
possible transitions among
th h
This would allow us to

calculate the heat required
for a phase transition
involving any particular
sample of water. Just as we
saw when we considered
temperature changes. The
heat will depend on the
amount of substance
undergoing the transition: It
will take more heat to melt a large block of ice than a small cube. The values shown in Table
2.3 are given in units J/mol, so we might want to specify the amount of water in terms of
moles, leading to the following equations:
ΔH = n x ΔHphase change (Eq. 22)
where: n = number of moles

Note: no ΔT involved because this equation is for phase transition and there is no ΔT
during transition. Hence, T is taken as constant.
Illustrative Problem. Calculate the enthalpy change when 240 g of ice melts.
Given: Ice melts m = 240 g
Rxn: H2O(S) →H2O(l)
Required: change in enthalpy
1 mole
Solution: n = 240 g H2O x = 13.3 mol H2O
18.0 g
ΔH = n x ΔHfus
J
= 13.3mol x 6009.5
mol
= 8.01 x 104 J
Calculate the enthalpy change when 14.5 g of water vapor condenses to liquid water.

Revision: 01
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A.9. Vaporization and Electricity Production
Fig. 6. Basic feature of a fossil fuel-powered

electricity plant
Fuel, typically coal or natural gas, is burned to

release chemical energy as heat. The goal of the
power plant is to convert as much of energy as
possible into electricity. The critical step in the
process is to trap the heat given off in the
combustion reaction. Water is the material of
choice in this process because it has a large heat
of vaporization. The intermolecular forces are
strong in water because of extensive hydrogen
bonding. These hydrogen bonds between water
molecules in the liquid lead to the large value of
ΔHvap. If a material with a small heat of
vaporization were substituted for water, much
more of it would be required to absorb the same
amount of heat. The large heat of vaporization
coupled with the relative abundance of water has
led to its widespread use in the energy sector of the economy.
Figure 7. The figure shows how the temperature of a 500-g sample of H2O varies as it absorbs heat.
beginning with ice at –50°C. At segment (1), the T of the ice rises until the MP of 0°C. In region
(2), ice melts at a constant T=0°C until it is converted into liquid. In region (3), only liquid water is
present, and its temperature rises until the BP of 100°C. In region (4), the water boils at a
A.10. Heat of Reaction
The importance of chemistry to the energy economy arises from the fact that there are
enthalpy change in chemical reactions as well. This enthalpy change is commonly referred to as
heat of reaction .
a.10.1. Bonds and Energy
Chemical reactions involve energy changes because chemical bonds are broken and
formed when reactants are transformed into products.

Revision: 01
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CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
In Lewis structures for the reactants and products are:
Reactant side: C – H single bonds = 4 Product side: C ꓿ O double bonds

=2
O ꓿ O double bonds = 2 O – H single bonds = 4
> All bonds in the reactants must be broken; that will require an input of energy.
> Energy released to form new bonds > energy required to break the original bonds;
Exothermic rxn
> Energy released to form new bonds < energy required to break the original bonds;
Endothermic rxn
> ΔH for the combustion of one mol of methane is -890.4 KJ.
The overall energetics of a chemical reaction can be summarized in a thermochemical

equation (TCE).
Ex. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) ΔH = -890.4 KJ
Two things this equation shows:
a. The TCE reaction tells whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic.

b. The TCE reaction tells exactly how much heat will be released or absorbed
2CH4(g) + 4O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) ΔH = -1780.8 kJ
a.10.2. Heats of Reaction for Some Specific Reactions
Some classes of chemical reactions have been assigned their own label for heats of
reactions.
a. The heat of combustion (ΔHcom) is the amount of heat released when a

substance is burned.
b. The heat of formation (ΔHform) is the heat necessary for the formation of a
compound.
c. The heat of solution (ΔHsol) is the heat involved when a substance is dissolved
in a solution.
d. The heat of dissociation (ΔHdis) is the heat involved when a compound
(electrolytes) dissociates in a solution.
e. The heat of neutralization (ΔHneut) is the heat that accompanies the
neutralization of a base and an acid.
A formation reaction is the chemical reaction by which one mole of a compound is

formed from its elements in their standard states.
The standard states is the most stable form of the element at room temperature (25oC)
and pressure (1 atm). For example, the formation reaction for carbon monoxide is

Revision: 01
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1
C(s) + O2(g) → CO(g) ΔHo = ΔHfo [CO(g)]
2
Note: The heat of formation for any element in its standard state must always be zero.
a.10.3. Hess’s Law and Heats of Reaction
The enthalpy changes in chemical reactions play an important role in a wide range of
situations. Enthalpies may be determined directly by calorimetric means. BUT ithey can be
indirectly using Hess’s Law:
Hess’s Law
The enthalpy change for any process is independent of the particular way the process
is carried out. This means that enthalpy is a state function. A state is a variable whose value
depends only on the state of the system and not on its history.
For a chemical reaction, the concept of a state function can be very important. Because
enthalpy is a state function, a way to determine the change in enthalpy is to consider any
particular path that leads from the reactants to the desired products. The block diagram
below illustrates this fact:
Fig. 8. Conceptual diagram representing

Hess’s law. Because enthalpy is a state
function, we can choose any convenient
path from the initial state to the final
state and use that path to calculate the
The desired enthalpy change could be obtained via either of two alternative pathways:
ΔHdesired = ΔHAi + ΔHAf
ΔHdesired = ΔHBi + ΔHBf
Fig. 9. Enthalpy diagram for the combustion of

methane. Here we imagine that one mole of
CH4 is first converted to CO (step 1) and that
the CO then reacts further to form CO2 (step 2).
If we know the values of ΔH1 and ΔH2, we can
use them to calculate ΔHcomb.
The enthalpy diagram for the combustion of
Revision: 01
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methane may either be complete producing carbon dioxide directly, or incomplete, producing
carbon monoxide.
Illustrative Problem. Sulfur trioxide reacts with water to form sulfuric acid, a major
contributor to acid rain. One origin of SO3 is the combustion of sulfur, which is present in
small quantities in coal, according to the following equation.
3
S(s) + O2(g) → SO3(g)
2
Given the thermochemical information below, determine the heat of reaction for this reaction
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔHo = -296.8 KJ
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2 SO3(g) ΔHo = -197.0 KJ
3
Given : Target reaction: S(s) + O2(g) → SO3(g) ΔH o = ?
2
Required : ΔH o = ? for the rx using the two sets of reactions given
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔHo = -296.8 KJ
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2 SO3(g) ΔHo = -197.0 KJ
Solution : The each of the two reactions should be arranged in such a way that when they
are added, the resulting reaction will look like the target reaction given.
To do that, the following should be done:
1
a. Reaction 2 must be multiplied by .
2
1
b. Its ΔHo must also be multiplied by
2
c. Add the resulting reactions and their change in enthalpies taking account the
signs. Since the two SO2 compounds are on different sides of the equation,
they should cancel out.
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔH o = -296.8 KJ
1
x [2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2 SO3(g) ΔH o = -197.0 KJ]
2
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔH o = -296.8 KJ
1
SO2(g) + O2(g) → SO3(g) ΔH o = - 98.5 KJ
2

Revision: 01
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3
S(s) + O2(g) → SO3(g) ΔH o = -395.3 kJ
2
Answer
Use the following thermochemical equations as needed to find the heat of formation of
diamond:
C(diamond) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔHo = -395.3 KJ
2 CO2(g) → 2 CO(g) + O2(g) ΔHo = 566.0 KJ
C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔHo = -395.3 KJ
2 CO(g) → C(graphite) + CO2(g) ΔHo = -172.5 KJ
a.10.4. Formation Reactions and Hess’s Law

Hess’s law is also useful in calculating the enthalpy change of any chemical reaction.
Fig. 9 shows how this useful scheme arises.
Fig. 10. The conceptual diagram shows how to use tabulated

enthalpies of formation to calculate the enthalpy
change for a chemical reaction.
The graph tells that the reactants are converted to

elements in their standard states then recombine to
form the products.
Step 1 is the decomposition of reactants into elements in their standard states. But this is
just the opposite of the formation reaction of the reactants, so the enthalpy change of
the process is -ΔHfo (reactants).
Step 2 is the formation of the products from elements in their standard states; has an
enthalpy change of ΔHfo (products).
The first summation is overall the reactants The second is over all of the
products
Illustrative Example. Use tabulated data to find the heat of combustion of one mole of
propane, C3H8 to form gaseous C and liquid water.
Given : Combustion of one mole of propane, C3H8 to form gaseous C and liquid water.
Rx: C3H8(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Required : ΔHc = ?
Revision: 01
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Solution : Step 1. Write a balanced chemical equation for the process

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l)
Step 2. Get the enthalpies of formation of each compound and multiply by
their corresponding heats of formation.
ΔHo: C3H8(g) = -103.8 kJ O2(g) = 0
H2O(l) = -285.8 kJ CO2(g) = -393.5 kJ
Step 3. Compute enthalpy
ΔHo = 3 mol ΔHfo(CO2) + 4mol ΔHfo(H2O) - 1 mol ΔHfo(C3H8) - 5mol (0)
= 3 mol(-393.5 kJ/mol) + 4 mol (-285.8 kJ/mol) - 1 mol (-103.8 KJ/mol)
= 2219.9 KJ
Illustrative Problem . Ethanol, C2H5OH is used to introduce oxygen into some blends of
gasoline. It has a heat of combustion of 1366.8 KJ/mol. What is the heat of formation of
ethanol?
Given : C2H5OH(l) + 3 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l) ΔHo = -1366.8KJ
Required : Heat of formation of ethanol
kJ kJ
Solution : ΔHOfCO = -393.5 ΔHOfO = 0
2,g mol 2 mol
kJ kJ
ΔHOfH O,g = -285.8 ΔHOfC = ?
2 mol 2H5OH, l
mol
o
ΔHo = 2 mol ΔHfo [CO2(g)] + 3 mol ΔHfo [H2O(g)] - 1 mol ΔHfo [C2H5OH(l)] - 3 mol ΔHf [O2(g)]
-1366.8 kJ = [2 mol(-395.5 kJ/mol)+3 mol(-285.8 kJ/mol)]- [1 mol ΔHOfC 2H5OH, l

+ 3 mol(0)]
o
ΔHfC H5OH, l
= -277.6 kJ/mol Answer
2

1. Use heat of formation data to calculate ΔHo for the following reaction:
ClO2(g) + O(g) → ClO(g) + O2(g)
2. Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons leads to the generation of carbon monoxide
rather than carbon dioxide. As a result improperly vented furnaces can poison people
who live in an affected building because the toxicity of CO. Calculate the heat of
reaction of reaction for the incomplete combustion of methane, CH4(g), to yield liquid
water and CO(g).
A.11. Energy and Stoichiometry

Revision: 01
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The ability to predict the energetic consequences of a chemical reaction can be developed by
a treatment of energy in many similar ways to stoichiometry problems.
The mole is the heart of stoichiometry problems. Figure 10 shows the schematics of the
stoichiometric approach.
Fig. 11. This flow chart shows the

sequence of steps needed
to calculate the amount of
energy released or
b b d h h i l
The reaction between nitrogen gas and oxygen to form nitric oxide is a classic example. It
occurs as a side reaction when hydrocarbons are burned in internal combustion engines
(ICE). The exothermic combustion reaction uses air which is 21% oxygen and 78% N2.
o
N2 (g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g) ΔH = 180.5 kJ
The nitric oxide gas formed is an important species in several pollution pathways and an
irritant when present at low levels. The formation of nitrogen dioxide whose brown color is
largely responsible for the dark haze typical of urban smog.
Illustrative Problem . An engine generates 15.7 g of nitric oxide gas during a laboratory test.
How much heat was absorbed in producing this NO?
Given : 15.7 g of nitric oxide gas
Required : heat absorbed in producing the NO
o
Solution : N2 (g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g) ΔH = 180.5 kJ
1 mol NO
nNO = 15.7 g NO x = 0.523 mol NO
30.0 g NO
From the reaction, 2 moles of NO are produced absorbing about 180.5kJ of heat. For a 15.7 g
NO:
o 180.5 KJ
ΔH = n x ΔH = 0.532 mol x
2 mol NO
ΔH = 47.2 kJ Answer

If 124 kJ of heat is absorbed in a reaction that forms nitric oxide from nitrogen and oxygen,
what mass of NO must have been produced? What mass of N2 was consumed.

Revision: 01
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A.12. Energy Density and Fuels

When considering the economic merits of a particular fuel, several factors come to the fore:
a. The availability of technology for extracting it
b. The amount of pollution released by its combustion.
c. Relative safety.
d. The energy density of the fuel which is the amount of energy that can be released
per gram of fuel burned.
Table 4. Energy densities for a few possible fuel
=================================================================
fuel Energy Density (MJ/kg)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hydrogen 142.0
Methane 55.5
Octane 47.9
Propane 50.3
Aviation gasoline 43.1
Coal, anthracite 31.4
Diesel fuel 45.3
Oil, crude (petroleum) 41.9
Oil, heating 42.5
Gasoline, automotive 45.8
Kerosene 46.3
Wood, oven dry 20.0
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A.13. Batteries
The absorbed or released energy in the form of heat when fuels are burned is the most
common manifestation of energy in chemical reactions. However, there are other reactions that
interconvert between chemical energy and other forms of energy.
Ex. Glow sticks and fireflies involve release of energy as light rather than heat.
Battery – conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
The heart of any battery is electrochemistry. This is accomplished by the oxidation-reaction
of some elements and compounds.
In a standard alkaline battery, the important chemical reaction is
Zn(s) + MnO2(s) + H2O(l) → ZnO(s) + Mn(OH)2(s)
How does this reaction involve the transfer of electrons?
ZnO: The zinc would need a 2+ charge to balance the 2- charge on the oxygen
Zn reacts to form ZnO: Zinc loses two electrons.
Mn goes from a 4+ state in MnO2 to a 2+ state in Mn(OH)2 : so each atom gains two
electrons.

Revision: 01
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The net transfer of electrons is from zinc and manganese.
The design of the battery

physically separates the zinc
and manganese dioxide from
one another to ensure that the
electrons are transferred.
Batteries on reactions that
absorbed flow through the
external circuit as the reaction
proceeds.
Fig. 12 Construction of a typical

alkaline battery is illustrated
V. TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Answer the following questions:
ADF – BSABE 1-1 DEADLINE FRIDAY MID NIGHT + GCONCEPT PP.16, 20
PLUS ALL GCONCEPTS GIVEN AND ENERGY CRISIS ESSAY
FINISHED. 4/4/22 7-830
A. Defining Energy
1.Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy.
2. Define the term internal energy.
3. How fast (in meters per second) must an iron ball with a mass of 56.6 g be traveling in order to
have a kinetic energy of 15.75 J? The density of iron is 7.87 g/cm3 .
4. What is the kinetic energy of a single molecule of oxygen if it is traveling at 1.5 × 103 m/s?
5. The kinetic energy of molecules is often used to induce chemical reactions. The bond energy in
–19 2
an O2 molecule is 8.22 × 10 J. Can an O molecule traveling at 780 m/s provide enough
energy to break the O"O bond? What is the minimum velocity of an O2 molecule that would give
a kinetic energy capable of breaking the bond if it is converted with 100% efficiency.
B. Energy Transformation and conservation of energy

1. State the first law of thermodynamics briefly in your own words.
2. Which type of energy, heat or work, is “valued” more by society? What evidence supports your
judgment?
3. If a machine does 4.8 × 103 kJ of work after an input of 7.31 × 104 kJ of heat, what is the
change in internal energy for the machine?
4. Calculate (a) q when a system does 54 J of work and its energy decreases by 72 J and (b) ΔE
for a gas that releases 38 J of heat and has 102 J of work done on it.
5. If the algebraic sign of ΔE is negative, in which direction has energy flowed?
C. Heat capacity and calorimetry

1. Define the term calorimetry.
2. For the example of shallow water and sandy beaches, which material has a larger heat capacity
or specific heat? How does a hot day at the beach provide evidence for your answer?

Revision: 01
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3. A metal radiator is made from 26.0 kg of iron. The specific heat of iron is 0.449 J/g °C. How
much heat must be supplied to the radiator to raise its temperature from 25.0 to 55.0°C?
4. The material typically used to heat metal radiators is water. If a boiler generates water at 79.5°C,
what mass of water was needed to provide the heat required in the previous problem? Water
has a specific heat of 4.184 J/g °C.
5. Copper wires used to transport electrical current heat up because of the resistance in the wire.
If a 140-g wire gains 280 J of heat, what is the change in temperature in the wire? Copper has a
specific heat of 0.384 J/g °C.
D. Enthalpy
1. Under what conditions does the enthalpy change equal the heat of a process?
2. Why is enthalpy generally more useful than internal energy in the thermodynamics of real world
systems?
3. Define the terms exothermic and endothermic.
4. List at least two phase changes that are exothermic processes.
5. What happens to the temperature of a material as it undergoes an endothermic phase change?
If heat is added, how can the temperature behave in this manner?
E. Hess’s Law and Heats of Reaction

1. When a chemical bond breaks, is energy absorbed or released?
2. Which of the following are state functions? (a) the volume of a balloon, (b) the time it takes to
drive from your home to your college or university, (c) the temperature of the water in a coffee
cup, (d) the potential energy of a ball held in your hand
3. Using these reactions, find the standard enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mol PbO(s)
from lead metal and oxygen gas. PbO(s) + C(graphite) : Pb(s) + CO(g) DH° = 106.8 kJ
2C(graphite) + O2(g) : 2CO(g) ΔH°= –221.0 kJ If 250. g of lead reacts with oxygen to form lead
(II) oxide, what quantity of thermal energy (in kJ) is absorbed or evolved?
4. The phase change between graphite and diamond is difficult to observe directly. Both
substances can be burned, however. From these equations, calculate ΔH° for the conversion of
diamond into graphite. C(s, graphite) + O2(g) : CO2(g) ΔH° = –393.51 kJ C(s, diamond) + O2(g) :
CO2(g) ΔH° = –395.94 kJ
F. Energy and Stoichiometry

1. For the reaction
C2H2(g) + 2H2(g) → C2H6 ΔH° = –136 kJ
what are the ratios that can be defined between moles of substances and energy?
2. For the reaction
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g ΔH° = 180.5 kJ
how much energy is needed to generate 35 moles of NO(g)?
3. Silane, SiH4, burns according to the reaction, SiH4 + 2O2 → SiO2 + 2H2O, with ΔH ° = –1429 kJ.
How much energy is released if 15.7 g of silane is burned?
VI. RECOMMENDED SUPPLEMENTARY LEARNING MATERIALS AND RESOURCES

A. Videos
1. Metric system review (https://youtu.be/b2JCZDeLGF4)\

2. Energy & Chemistry: Crash Course Chemistry #17 -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqtUWyDR1fg
3. Calorimetry: Crash Course Chemistry #19 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JuWtBR-rDQk
4. Hess's Law and Heats of Formation - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2q2u5sj4V00
VII. FLEXIBLE TEACHING LEARNING MODALITY (FTLM) ADOPTED

Revision: 01
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Online: Zoom, Edmodo, Google classroom, FB Messenger

Remote: Modules, Exercises, Problem sets
VIII. ASSESSMENT TASK

IX. REFERENCES
1. Brown, Larry; Holme, Tom. Chemistry for Engineering, 2nd Ed. Cengage Learning Asia
Pte Ltd, 2012. ISBN-13:978-981-4392-99-0
2. Helmenstine, Ann Marie, PhD. “Introduction to Stoichiometry”.Thoughco, February11, 2020.

Thoughtco.com/introduction-to-stoichiometry-609201
3. Myers, R. Thomas; Oldham, Keith B.; Tocci, Salvatore (2000). Chemistry. Austin, Texas: Holt
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Republic of the Philippines

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

I. MODULE 2. Energy and Chemistry

III. Learning Outcomes/Objectives

After mastering this module, you should be able to:

IV. Leaning Content: Energy and Chemistry

A.1. What is energy

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

Energy is defined as the ability to do useful work.

A2. Kinds and Forms of Energy

a.2.1. Kinds of Energy

Potential energy = Ep = mgΔh (Eq. 2)

A roller coaster as an example shows kinetic and potential energy on a macroscopic

Kinetic Energy = 15.75 J

Required : velocity of the ball to posses the 15.75 J kinetic energy

Required: Potential energy of the ball

Given : A lump of ice fall from an airplane

Grasping the Concept

a.2.2. Forms of Energy

A.3. Heat and Work

Hydrocarbon + O2(g) = CO2(g) + CO(g) + H2O(g) AH = ?

Hydrocarbon + O2(g) = CO2(g) + H2O(g) AH = ?

A.4. Units of Energy

Work = Force x distance W=Fxs (Eq. 3)

A.5. Energy Transformation and Conservation of Energy

a. One must specify precisely what is being studied.

a.5.1. Modes of Energy Transfer

For all systems: ΔE = Efinal – Einitial (Eq. 7)

a.5.2. Convention of Energy Transfer

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

A system can change its internal energy in two ways:

1. By losing some energy to the surroundings.

EFinal < Einitial ΔE < 0

2. By gaining some energy from the Surroundings

EFinal > Einitial ΔE > 0

Some examples of Heat and Work Transfer

Solution : Let the gas be the system

Analysis: Energy flow occurs as either heat or work

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

Grasping the Concept

ΔEsurroundings = - ΔEsystem (Eq. 9)

a.5.4. Energy Transfer as Heat Only

1. Heat is flowing out from the system

2. Heat is flowing into the system

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

Understanding the Concept

a.5.5. Energy Transfer as Work Only

There are also two possibilities:

1. Work is DONE BY the system

System: The atoms making up the substances

What happens: As H2 forms, some ΔE is used by the system to do work on the

2. Work DONE ON the system

a.5.6. Summary of Sign Convention for w, q and Final State ΔE

A.6. Resolving the Energy Issue

Table 1. Comparison of efficiencies of different equipment used for work generation.

A.7. Heat Capacity and Calorimetry

a.7.1 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

q = mcΔT (Eq. 13)

where: q = the specific heat in terms of mass, J

q = nCpΔT (Eq. 14)

where: q = the specific heat in terms of mole, J