Ce 112 Module 2 Energy and Chemistry

1
Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

First Semester, School Year 2020-2021
CE 112
Chemistry for Engineers
I. MODULE 2. Energy and Chemistry

II. Introduction
If you list application of chemistry that are important in your life, many of them would be likely to involve
energy and energy transformation. The burning of fuels is an application of chemical combustion. All the
batteries used to power portable electrical devices are based on chemical reactions as well.
Energy use is closely connected to a broad array of societal, economic, and political factors. This module
will take a closer look at energy and its role in chemistry focusing on its production and its use.
III. Learning Outcomes/Objectives
After mastering this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain the economic importance of conversions between different forms of energy and the inevitability of
losses in this process.
2. Define work and heat using the standard sign conventions.
3. Define state functions and explain their importance.
4. State the first law of thermodynamics in words and as an equation.
5. Use calorimetric data to obtain values for △E and △H for chemical reactions.
6. Define ΔHf ° and write formation reactions for compounds.
7. Explain Hess’s law in your own words.
8. Calculate ΔH° for chemical reactions from tabulated data.
9. Describe some important design considerations in choosing a battery for a specific application.
IV. Leaning Content: Energy and Chemistry
A. ENERGY
A.1. What is energy
Most people have an intuitive feel for the concept of energy, and the word is used every day. Breakfast
cereals advertise their ability to provide energy in the morning. In sports, substitute players are described as
boosting their team’s energy. The energy crisis brought on by oil embargoes in the 1970s is a critical component
of the history of that decade, and energy remains central to important political issues in the 21st century. This
widespread use of the concept of energy underscores its importance. It also suggests that one needs to be very
careful in defining energy and related terms because it is apparent that in casual use the word “energy” conveys
many related but subtly different meanings.
Energy is defined as the ability to do useful work.
A2. Kinds and Forms of Energy

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a.2.1. Kinds of Energy
Energy can be categorized into two kinds: potential energy and kinetic energy.
Potential energy is associated with the relative position of an object. It is the energy of the mass
relative to its position.
Kinetic energy is associated with motion. It is the energy of a mass by virtue of its motion.
When a roller coaster heads down the first hill, it transforms potential energy into kinetic energy.
A mathematical definition for the potential and kinetic energy of an object in terms of its mass
(m) and velocity (v) is given below:
1 2 1 2 2
Kinetic energy = Ek = mv = m( v 2−v 1) (Eq. 1)
2 2
Potential energy ¿ E p =mg ∆ h (Eq. 2)
where: m = mass, kg
m
v = velocity,
s
m
v1, v2 = initial and final velocities,
s
g =gravitational acceleration
m ft cm
= 9.80 2 =32.2 2 = 980 Fig. 1. A concept to remember
s s s2
potential energy formula
∆ h = (h2-h1)= difference in height, m
https://mrmackenzie.co.uk/
h1, h2 = initial and final height of the body
A roller coaster as an example shows kinetic and potential energy on a macroscopic scale. But
on a microscopic level, all substances and objects are composed of atoms and molecules. These atoms
and molecules have kinetic energy associated with their constant motion, and they have potential energy
due to the various forces they exert on one another. The combined kinetic and potential energies of the
atoms and molecules that make up an object constitute its internal energy. Thus, the roller coaster cars
have three basic kinds of energy: kinetic (from their motion), potential (from their position relative to
the ground), and internal (from the molecules that compose the materials from which they are made).
Much of the internal energy of an object, be it a roller coaster car or a piece of coal, is
associated with the potential energy arising from the relative positions of the atoms that make up the
object.
Illustrative Problem (Kinetic Energy). How fast (in m/s) must an iron ball with a mass of 56.6 g be
g
travelling in order to have a kinetic energy of 15.75 J. The density of the ball is 7.87 .
cm 3
g
Given: An iron ball: m = 56.6 g Density, D = 7.87
cm3
Kinetic Energy = 15.75 J
Required: velocity of the ball to posses the 15.75 J kinetic energy
Solution:
1
Ek = mv2
2

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3
m2
1 kg .
2(15.75 J ) 1000 g s2
v 2= x x
56.6 g 1 kg 1J
v = 23.6 m/s
Illustrative Problem (Potential Energy). Determine the potential energy of the same ball in the IP
above when it is drop from a from the top of a water fall 100 ft high. Express answer in SI, CGS and
English units.
1m
Given : Iron ball: m = 56.6 g h1 = 0 fth2 = 100 ft x =30.5 m=30,500 cm
3.28 ft
Required: Potential energy of the ball
Solution : a) E p =mg ∆ h
E p =mg¿
1 kg m
E p =56.6 gx x 9.8 2 ( 0−30.5 ) m
100 g s
kg ∙ m 2
E p =16.9 =16.9 J Note: 1 BTU = 1055 J
s2
cm
b) E p =56.6 g x 980 2 ( 0−30,500 ) cm
s
E p =1,691,774,000 ergs Note: 1 J = 10,000,000 ergs
1 lb ft
c) E p =56.6 gx x 32.174 2 ( 0−100 ) ft
454 g s
1 BTU
E p =401.1 ft ∙lb f x Note: 1 BTU = 778 ft-lbf
778 ft ∙ lbf
E p =0.52 BTU
ft
Note: poundforce = lbmass x gravitational acceleration or lbf = lbm x.
s2
Illustrative Problem. A lump of ice falls from an airplane as it comes in to land. If the ice hits the
ground with a vertical speed of 85m/s, what was the height of the plane when the ice fell off? (Assume
that friction can be ignored.)
Given : A lump of ice fall from an airplane

Hits the ground at v = 85 m/s vertically
Required: Height of the plane when the ice fell off
Solution: The LCE says that energy is transformed from one form to another or Energy is preserved
The Ek of the ice as it hits the ground = the initial Ep of the ice when it fell off the plane
Ek =E p
1
m v 2=mg ∆ h=mg (h2−h1) Note: m can be cancelled out bec it is the same
2
1 2 2
( v −v )=g ( h2−h1 )
2 2 1
ice being referred to.
1 2 2
( 85 −0 ) 9.8 m2 =( h 2−0 )
2 s
1
h2 =9.8 x( )(7225)
2
h2 =361.2m
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Grasping the Concept
1. A box has a mass of 5.8kg. The box is lifted from the garage floor and placed on a shelf. If the
box gains 145J of Potential Energy (Ep), how high is the shelf?
2. A rabbit and a rat are running with the same kinetic energy. Which one do you think is going
faster?
3. Calculate the kinetic energy of a 0.50 g object moving with a speed of 5 m/s. What is the
difference in kinetic energy if the speed is doubled?
a.2.2. Forms of Energy
It useful to have more specific terms for various forms of energy. The making or breaking of
chemical bonds changes the potential energy. In most chemical reactions, bonds are broken in the
reactants and new bonds are formed in the products. If the amount of energy liberated in bond making
is greater than that used in bond breaking, the overall process releases energy. This energy release is
often referred to as chemical energy, and the harnessing of chemical energy is an important aspect of
the overlap between chemistry and engineering.
Radiant energy (solar or light) is associated with light or electromagnetic radiation. The radiant
energy of the Sun is ultimately responsible for the majority of energy resources on this planet.
Mechanical energy is associated with the movement of macroscopic objects. Thermal energy arises
from the temperature of an object. (One can associate thermal energy with the molecular level motion of
atoms and molecules.) Electrical energy results from moving charge—usually electrons in a metal.
Nuclear energy, which can be released in nuclear fusion and fission processes, is a form of potential
energy associated with the arrangement of protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei.
A.3. Heat and Work
All energy flow is either heat or work. One needs to understand the forms of energy transfer to assess
the energy economy of the world and the role of chemistry in that economy.
Heat is the flow of energy between two objects, from the warmer one to the cooler one, because of a
difference in their temperatures. Thus, strictly speaking, heat is a process and not a quantity. It is often routinely
heard such statement as “turn up the heat.” BUT heat is not an entity that can be pumped into a room or a cup of
coffee. An object does not possess heat. In a strictly scientific sense, a furnace does not produce heat but rather a
body of warm air or hot water that has a higher temperature than the cool air in a room. What emerges from the
vent on the floor is not “heat,” but warm air. Although these distinctions are essentially semantic, they can be
very important in many cases.
Work is the second form of energy transfer. Work is the transfer of energy accomplished by a force
moving a mass some distance against resistance. Lifting a set of roller coaster cars up a hill against the pull of
gravity is an example of work. In macroscopic level examples, it is typically viewing work in terms of
mechanical energy. Work, however, encompasses a wider range of phenomena than just mechanical movement
of macroscopic objects. The most common type of work encountered in chemical processes is pressure-volume
work (PV-work). When a gas expands, it can do work. An example is an inflated balloon. If an inflated balloon
is released before it is tied off, it flies around as the gas inside the balloon expands into the large volume of the
room. Because the flying balloon has mass, it is easy to see that the expanding gas is doing work on the balloon:
this is pressure-volume work.
For a more productive example of work being done by a chemical reaction, the burning of gasoline in a
car engine is an excellent one. Gasoline is actually a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. The energy needed to
propel a car is released by the combustion of those hydrocarbons in the engine cylinders.

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Hydrocarbon + O2(g) : CO2(g) + H2O(g)
This combustion produces carbon dioxide and water vapor, and those gases do PV - work as they expand
against the piston in the cylinder. This PV-work is then transmitted through the drive train to move the car.
A.4. Units of Energy
There is a wide variety of units to be used when measuring and discussing energy. Various disciplines
of science and engineering tend to favor particular choices of units.
The SI unit of energy is the joule ( J), and 1 joule is equal to 1 kg m 2/s2. Work have units of energy.
Work is force times distance, and force is mass times acceleration.
Work = Force x distance W=Fxs (Eq. 3)

Force = Mass × acceleration F = ma (Eq. 4)
Work = Mass × acceleration x distance W = mas (Eq. 5)
Dimensional analysis:
m2
W = mas m = mass, kg a =acceleration, 2 s = distance, m
s
m2
W = (kg ∙ 2 ¿∙ m
s
kg ∙ m2 kg ∙ m 2
W= , joule Note: 1 joule =1
s2 s2
How large is a joule? A joule is roughly the amount of energy it takes to raise a 1-kg of matter 10 cm
high. On a molecular level, a joule is a very large amount of energy; breaking a single chemical bond typically
requires only about 10–18 J. But it is seldom that only one bond is broken at a time. At a reaction from the
macroscopic viewpoint, the smallest amount of bonds broken is a mole of bonds. 1 mole of molecules of matter
contains 6.022 x 1023 molecules of that matter. This number is called the Avogadro’s number. In that case, a
joule becomes so small a unit, so, a kilojoule or kJ (or kJ/mol) is used. 1 kJ is equal to 1000 joules. Breaking
one mole of a C-H bonds, for example, requires about 410 kJ.
Some older units for energy were defined based on some readily observable property. The BTU
(British thermal unit), which is still widely used in several engineering disciplines, was first defined as the
amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1°F. The calorie was originally
defined as the amount of energy required to heat 1 g of water from 14.5 to 15.5°C.
The joule has become the most widely accepted unit for energy, and so these other units are now
defined in terms of it. A calorie is now defined as 4.184 J, and a BTU is defined as 1055 J. A source of
frequent confusion in comparing energy units is that the Calorie reported for foods is actually a kilocalorie.
(The food Calorie should be written with an uppercase “C.”) Thus, 1 Calorie is actually equivalent to 4184 J,
or 4.184 kJ.
A.5. Energy Transformation and Conservation of Energy
Not all forms of energy are equally useful. In many cases it is desirable to transform them into
multiple “useful” forms. For example, the lighting in a room is provided by electricity; but that electricity
was probably generated by the release of chemical energy through the combustion of coal. The chemical
energy released from burning coal is converted to electrical energy which is conveyed to the room where
your light bulbs convert it into radiant energy.

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The first and foremost constraint on energy transformation is that the total energy must be
conserved. If a proper accounting for all energy conversions and energy transfer processes, the total amount
of energy present must remain constant.
To account properly for all types of energy, two things are important:
a. One must specify precisely what is being studied.

The system is the part of the universe that is being studied. Everything outside the system is
considered the surroundings. The imaginary layer that separates the system and the surroundings
is called the boundary. The totality of the three parts is called the universe.
b. Identify the mode and dynamics of energy transfer
The boundary may be a physical container or might be a more abstract separation. But one must be
consistent; the same choice of system and surroundings must be used throughout a particular problem. Once
an appropriate choice of a system has been made, the concept of conservation of energy immediately
becomes useful.
a.5.1. Modes of Energy Transfer
Heat and work are the ONLY possible forms of energy transfer one can attribute to the overall change
in energy, ΔE, of a system. Heat is commonly designated as q and work as w and ΔE is:
ΔE = q + w (Eq. 6)
The symbol Δ (delta) is introduced here as a notation meaning “the change in.” This symbol, which
will be used frequently in the study of thermodynamics, is always defined as the difference between the final
state and the initial state.
For all systems: ΔE = Efinal – Einitial (Eq. 7)

For chemical reactions as a system: ΔE = EProducts – Ereactants (Eq. 8)
a.5.2. Convention of Energy Transfer

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The signs for the quantities of heat and work in the equation must be determined by convention: the
energy transferred into a system is given a positive sign and energy flowing out of a system carries a
negative sign. Thus, when heat flows into a system from the surroundings, the value of q is positive, and
when work is done on a system, the value of w is positive. Conversely, when heat flows out of a system or
work is done by the system on the surroundings, q and w will be negative.
Fig. 2. Sign convention for q and w TO and FROM Fig.3. Energy transfer between the system and surroundings.
the system.
A system can change its internal energy in two ways:
1. By losing some energy to the surroundings.
E Final < Einitial ∆ E< 0
2. By gaining some energy from the Surroundings

E Final > Einitial ∆ E> 0
Some examples of Heat and Work Transfer
1. A hot soup in a bowl on top of a table: q is transferred from the soup (system) to the bowl
(boundary), air and table (surrounding)
Heat is the energy transferred between a system and its surrounding as a result of a difference in
their T only.
2. A man kicks a football. If the man is the system, the football is part of the surrounding. Then energy
is transferred as W to move the ball.
3. An inflated balloon: The gas inside the balloon is the system. It exerts a force on the inside wall of
the balloon and nearby air (surrounding) and does work to move the walls outward.
Illustrative Problem (IP) 1. If 515 J of heat is added to a gas that does 218 J of work as a result, what
is the change in the energy of the system?
Given : q = 515 J added to a gas
w = 218 J work done by the gas
Required: Change in the energy of the system
Solution : Let the gas be the system
Analysis: Energy flow occurs as either heat or work
q = + 515 J (q > 0 or q is + since it is added to the gas (system)
w = - 218 J (w is – since the work is done by the system…to the surrounding)
∆ E = q + w = +515 J + (–218 J)
= +515 J – 218 J
= +297 J
Note: a. In most cases when a value is positive, the “+” sign is not placed in front of the number.
b. There is the NEED to consider the signs of q and w carefully.

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A 4081, J2020
Effectivity: August of work
is done on a system that releases 185 J of heat. a) What is the energy change in
the system? b) In the IP #1, it can be seen that ΔE is not zero. How can this be consistent with the
idea that energy must be conserved?
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a.5.3. How is Energy Conserved Between the System and Its Surroundings
Following the sign conventions for q and w allows for the internal energy (ΔE) of the system to be
offset precisely by a change in the surroundings. This way, the internal energy of the universe remains
constant.
ΔEsurroundings = - ΔEsystem (Eq. 9)

ΔEUniverse = ΔEsurroundings + ΔEsystem (Eq. 10)
This is exactly the first law of thermodynamics. Energy can be transformed from one form to another but
cannot be created or destroyed.
a.5.4. Energy Transfer as Heat Only
For systems where energy is transferred as heat only, the system does no work. Hence, w = 0.
ΔE = q + w = q + 0
ΔE = q (Eq. 11)
Two possibilities:
1. Heat is flowing out from the system

Ex. Hot water in a beaker system : the hot water
Surrounding : the beaker, air and lab
The water transfer energy to the system as heat
The system’s energy decreases as heat flows out
Final energy of the system is < it initial energy
Heat is lost by the system, so q = - and ΔE = -
2. Heat is flowing into the system

Example: Water in a cellophane put inside a refrigerator
System : The Water
Surrounding : the confines of the refrigerator
What happens: Water gains energy as heat from the surrounding until the T of the water
equals that of the surroundings
Energy is transferred to the system
The final energy of the system > its initial energy; so q = + and ΔE = +
Understanding the Concept

Write something about: 1. Case A: A piece of food is put in a refrigerator.
2. Case B. A piece of food in a hot oven.
a.5.5.
Energy Transfer as Work Only
q=0 ΔE = w + q = w + 0
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ΔE = w (Eq. 12)
There are also two possibilities:
1. Work is DONE BY the system

Ex. A reaction in an insulated container attached to a inside a piston-cylinder assembly
Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) H2 (g) + Zn2+ (aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
System: The atoms making up the substances

Initially : ΔEsystem = ΔEReactants in the form of Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) ions
Final state : ΔEsystem = ΔEProducts same atoms in the products
What happens: As H2 forms, some ΔE is used by the system to do work on the surroundings
and
PUSH THE PISTON UPWARD.
Energy is lost by the system as work, so, w = - and ΔE = -
H2 is doing a Pressure-Volume work (PV-work)[A PV-work is a type of work
in which a volume changes against and external pressure.
The work done here is not very useful because it simply pushes back the piston
and outside air.
2. Work DONE ON the system
If external pressure is increased in the piston-cylinder assembly, the system GAINS energy
BECAUSE WORK IS DONE ON TH SYSTEM by the surroundings.
w=+ ΔEsystem = +
a.5.6. Summary of Sign Convention for w, q and Final State ΔE
q + w = ΔE
+ + = +
+ - = Depends on the values of q and w
- + = Depends on the values of q and w
- - = -
q = + means system gains hea w = + Work is done on the system
q = - means system loses heat w = - Work is done by the system.
A.6. Resolving the Energy Issue
Waste energy is the part of energy in the form of heat that is not utilized but which dissipates into the
atmosphere. The complete conversion of heat to useful work depends totally upon the means by which the
conversion is done. But there is no perfect machine that can accomplish this. This leads to the second law of
thermodynamics
One common way to obtain work from a system is to heat it: heat flows into the system and the
system does work. But in practice, the amount of heat flow will always exceed the amount of useful work
achieved. The excess heat may contribute to thermal pollution. (Thermal pollution is the raising or lowering
of water temperature in streams, lakes, or oceans above or below normal seasonal ranges from the discharge
of hot or cold waste streams into the water.) The efficiency of conversion from heat to work can be
expressed as a percentage.
New technologies are developed to reduce the wasted energy from, say, an appliance. But even
with the best technology available, energy generation will still always result in energy being lost as heat. The
output is always less than the input. Some equipment and their efficiencies are listed in the table below:

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Table 1. Comparison of efficiencies of different equipment used for work generation.

=============================================================================
Device Energy conversion Typical efficiency, %
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Electric heater Electrical to thermal 100
Hair drier Electrical to thermal 100
Electric generator Mechanical to electrical 95
Electric motor (large) Electrical to mechanical 90
Battery Chemical to electrical 90
Steam boiler (power plant) Chemical to thermal 85
Electric motor (small) Electrical to mechanical 65
Automobile engine Chemical to mechanical 25
Fluorescent lamp Electrical to light 20
Silicon solar cell Solar to electrical 15
============================================================================
A.7. Heat Capacity and Calorimetry
Heat or energy is may be an abstract concept to many. But concretizing these concepts can be done
measuring systematically energy flow. This can be worked by observing heat flow into or out of a system
through a set of techniques collectively called calorimetry.
a.7.1 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
Different systems will absorb different amounts of energy based on three main factors:
1. Amount of material
Case: A glass of water vs the water in a lake
2. Type of material (sand vs water in the ocean)
3. Temperature change (sand in a beach: sunny day vs. cloudy day)
This idea can easily be expressed as an equation. Two options for expressing the amount of
material:
1. By mass
2. by moles
Either choice leads to a usable equation in terms of mass and change in temperature using term
called the specific heat capacity, c, which is usually simply called the specific heat.
q = mcΔT (Eq. 13)
where: q = the specific heat in terms of mass, J

m = mass, kg
J J
c = specific heat capacity, ∨
kg ∙ ❑C kg ∙ K
o
∆ T =¿ difference in temperature, K or oC
Specific heat is a physical property of a material that measures how much heat is required to raise
the temperature of one gram of that material by 1°C.
Molar heat capacity is a physical property that describes how much heat is required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a substance by 1°C.
q = nCpΔT (Eq. 14)

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where: q = the specific heat in terms of mole, J

= amount of heat needed to change the temperature
n = moles
J J
Cp = specific heat capacity, ∨
o
mol ∙ ❑C mol ∙K
∆ T =¿ difference in temperature, K or oC
Note: >Cp indicates the value is measured at constant pressure

> At constant volume, C = Cv
>∆ T can correctly be written as either 10°C or 10 K
> q depends ONLY in the temperature difference and not on temperature
Table 2. Specific heat and molar heat capacities for some common substances
======================================================================
Substance Specific Heat, c Molar Heat Capacity, Cp
( J∙g–1 K–1 ) ( J∙mol–1 K–1)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Al(s) 0.900 24.3
Cu(s) 0.385 24.5
H2O(s) 2.09 37.7
H2O(ℓ) 4.18 75.3
H2O(g) 2.03 36.4
======================================================================
Illustrative Problem. Heating a 24.0-g aluminum can raise its temperature by 15.0°C. Find the value
of q for the can.
Given : Al m = 24 g T1 = ? T2 = ? ∆ T =T 2−T 1=15.0o C

Required: q
Solution : q = mcΔT
J
q = 24 g(0.900 (15.0)K
g−K
q = 324 J
Illustrative Problem. The molar heat capacity of liquid water is 75.3 J/mol K. If 37.5 g of water is
cooled from 42.0 to 7.0°C, what is q for the water?
J
Given : Liquid Water Cp = 75.3 m = 37.5 g
mol ∙ K
Cooled from T1 = 42.0oC to T2 = 7.0oC
Required :q
w
Solution :n = w = weight or mass MW = molecular weight or mass
MW
1
Or n = w x
MW
q = nCp∆ T =¿ ¿)Cp(T2 -T1)
1mol J
q=37.5 gx x 75.3 ( 7.0−42.0 ) K
18 g mol ∙ K
q=−5.49 kJ
The negative value indicates that the system (in this case, the water) has lost energy to the surroundings.
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Illustrative Problem. A glass contains 250.0 g of warm water at 78.0°C. A piece of gold at 2.30°C is
placed in the water. The final temperature reached by this system is 76.9°C. What was the mass of
gold? The specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g °C, and that of gold is 0.129 J/g °C.
Given: Warm water in a glass m = 250.0 g T = 78.0oC

A piece of gold put in the water T = 2.30oC
Final temperature of the system, T2 = 76.9oC
J J
Specific heat of water, Cp = 4.184 specific heat of gold, Cp = 0.129
g ∙o C g ∙o C
Required: mass of the gold
Solution: Assume that heat flows ONLY between the gold and the water. The temperature of the
water
will decrease and that of gold will increase until the system equilibriate:
Heat absorbed by the gold = heat lost by water
−q water =q gold
−( mC ∆ T )water =(mC ∆ T )gold
J
−250.0 g x 4.184 ¿
g ∙o C
mgold = 120 g
1. A block of iron weighing 207. g absorbs 1.50 kJ of heat. What is the change in the temperature
of the iron?
2. If 226 kJ of heat increases the temperature of 47.0 kg of copper by 12.5°C, what is the molar
heat capacity of copper?
3. A 125-g sample of cold water and a 283-g sample of hot water are mixed in an insulated
thermos bottle and allowed to equilibrate. If the initial temperature of the cold water is 3.0°C,
and the initial temperature of the hot water is 91.0°C, what will be the final temperature?
a.7.2 Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the term used to describe the measurement of heat flow. Experiments are carried
out in devices called calorimeters The heat evolved or absorbed by the system of interest is determined by
measuring the temperature change in its surroundings. Every effort is made to isolate the calorimeter
thermally, preventing heat flow between the immediate surroundings and the rest of the universe. If the
instrument is thermally isolated from the rest of the universe, the only heat flow that must be considered is
that between the system being studied and the immediate surroundings, whose temperature can be measured.
A two-step process is used to make a calorimetric measurement. The first step is calibration in
which a known amount of heat is generated in the apparatus. The second step is the actual measurement, in
which we determine the amount of heat absorbed or released in the reaction of a known amount of material.
Known amount of heat = calorimeter constant × ΔT

q = Ccalorimeter × ΔT (Eq.15)
Note: The calorimeter constant is the heat capacity of a particular object (or set of objects)
rather than that of a material.
In the case of a bomb calorimeter, the calorimeter constant is largely attributable to the
water that surrounds the bomb but also includes the heat capacities of the thermometer,
the stirring system, and the bomb itself.

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Fig. 4. A bomb calorimeter is a

fairly complicated piece of
equipment. But the general
premise of the device is simply
to carry out a reaction at
constant volume and with no
heat flow between the
calorimeter and the outside
world.
Illustrative Problem. A calorimeter is to be used to compare the energy content of some fuels. In the
calibration of the calorimeter, an electrical resistance heater supplies 100.0 J of heat and a temperature
increase of 0.850 oC is observed. Then 0.245 g of a particular fuel is burned in this same calorimeter,
and the temperature increases by 5.23 oC. Calculate the energy density of this fuel, which is the amount
of energy liberated per gram of fuel burned.
Given: A calorimeter under calibration

Step 1. Determine the calorimeter constant
Step 2. Determine the heat evolved from a sample
Data: heat supplied by heater = 100.0 J T increase = 0.850oC
Test sample: m = 0.245 g T increase = 5.23 oC
Required: Energy density of the sample
Solution:
Step1: Calibration
q = Ccalorimeter x ΔT
q
C calorimeter=
∆T
100.0 J J
C calorimeter= o
=118 o
0.85 0 C ❑C
Step 2: Determination of heat evolved by fuel

qcalorimeter = Ccalorimeter x ΔT
J
= 118 x 5.23oC
❑o C
= 615 J
qfuel = - qcalorimeter = - 615J since the fuel releases heat
Calculating energy density:
Energy density =−¿ (Eq. 16)

−615 J
¿−( )
0.245 g
J
= 2.51
g

ISUE - CASThe - DMS - 016
combustion
of naphthalene (C10H8), which releases 5150.1kj/mol, is often use to calibrate
Revision: 01
calorimeters. A
1.05-g sample of naphthalene is burned in a calorimeter, producing a
temperature rise of 3.86oC. Burning a 1.83-g sample of coal in the same calorimeter causes a
temperature change of 4.90oC. What is the energy density of the coal?
14
A.8. Enthalpy
The concept of the heat flow is reasonably intuitive. The conditions under which heat flow occurs will
have an impact on the measurements that are made. For example, when one mole of octane, C 8H18, burns to
form gaseous carbon dioxide and liquid water under constant volume conditions, 5.45 X 10 3 kJ of heat is
released. The same reaction under constant pressure conditions releases 5.48 X 10 3 kJ.
Why do the two cases release different amounts of heat, and how can we account for these
differences properly?
a.8.1. Defining Enthalpy
Heats of reaction depend on reaction conditions. This is shown in the definition of internal
energy. From the definition of internal energy, it can be shown that under constant volume conditions,
the change in internal energy equals the heat flow.
ΔE = q + w
In chemical reactions, w is usually considered as only PV-work. When a gas expands, it does an
amount of work equal to PΔV on its surroundings. But if the expanding gas is our system and w to
be the work done on the gas:
w = – PΔ(V)
ΔE = q – PΔ(V) (Eq. 17)
This equation now shows how internal energy is related to heat.

If the volume is held constant, ΔV = V2–V1 = 0
ΔE = qv (Eq. 18)
qv = denote that the equation is correct only under constant volume conditions
When pressure is constant (P = k), a new function that is equal to the heat flow at constant
pressure condition is called enthalpy (H)
H = E + PV (Eq. 19)
ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV)
ΔH = (q – PΔV) + Δ(PV)
If P = k, ΔH = q - PΔV + PΔV (Eq. 20)
ΔH = qp (Eq. 21)
Two ways to define heat flow into a system, under two different sets of conditions.
a. For a process at constant volume: ΔE = qv
b. For a process at constant pressure: ΔH = qp
Enthalpy is most useful term because constant pressure conditions are more common.
Thus, when one refers to the heat of a process, it is typically a change in enthalpy, ΔH.
Revision: 01
15
Change in enthalpy can be written: ΔH = Hfinal - Hinitial

ΔH = - (ΔH < 0) heat is evolved or process is exothermic
ΔH = + (ΔH > 0) heat is absorbed or process is endothermic
a.8.2. ΔH of Phase Change
Heat flow into a substance does not always raise its temperature.
Ex. H 2 O (s) → H 2 O(l) at same T of 0oC…there is a heat flow
Reason: IMF or intermolecular forces are more extensive in a solid than in a liquid. So, as the
ice cube melts, energy must be expended to overcome some of the intermolecular attractions. The
internal energy of liquid water is higher than that of solid ice, even though both are at the same
temperature.
Hence, there will be heat flow in any phase change. The phase changes generally take place at
constant pressure, so the corresponding heat flows is viewed as changes in enthalpy
Some phase change enthalpies have specific names and symbols assigned to them:
a. The heat of fusion ( ΔHfus.) is the heat required to melt a substance.
b. The enthalpy change for converting a liquid to gas is known as the heat of vaporization,
ΔHvap. The heat of vaporization will always be positive.
c. The reverse process, condensation, have ΔHcon which will always release heat.
ΔHvap = -ΔHcon .
Table 3. Standard molar enthalpies and temperatures for phase changes of water
========================================================================
Phase
Change Fusion Freezing Vaporization
Condensation
Transition 0 oC 0 oC 100oC 100oC

Temperature
ΔH (J/mole) ΔHfus = 6009.5 ΔHfreeze = - 6009.5 ΔHvap = 4.97 x 104 ΔHcond = - 4.07 x 104
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig, 5. Microscopic level views of solid,

liquid, and gas phases are shown,
along with the terms commonly
used for the possible transitions
among these phases
This would allow us

to calculate the heat
required for a phase
transition involving
any particular sample
of water. Just as we

Revision: 01
16
saw when we considered temperature changes. The heat will depend on the amount of substance
undergoing the transition: It will take more heat to melt a large block of ice than a small cube. The
values shown in Table 2.3 are given in units J/mol, so we might want to specify the amount of water in
terms of moles, leading to the following equations:
ΔH = n x ΔHphase change (Eq. 22)
where: n = number of moles

Note: no ΔT involved because this equation is for phase transition and there is no ΔT during
transition. Hence, T is taken as constant.
Illustrative Problem. Calculate the enthalpy change when 240 g of ice melts.
Given: Ice melts m = 240 g
Rxn: H 2 O (S ) → H 2 O(l )
Required: change in enthalpy
1mole
Solution: n = 240 g H2O x = 13.3 mol H2O
18.0 g
ΔH = n x ΔHfus
J
= 13.3mol x 6009.5
mol
= 8.01 x 10 4 J
Calculate the enthalpy change when 14.5 g of water vapor condenses to liquid water.
Fig. 6. Basic feature of a fossil fuel-powered

electricity plant
A.9. Vaporization and Electricity Production
Fuel, typically coal or natural gas, is burned to

release chemical energy as heat. The goal of the
power plant is to convert as much of energy as
possible into electricity. The critical step in the
process is to trap the heat given off in the
combustion reaction. Water is the material of
choice in this process because it has a large heat of
vaporization. The intermolecular forces are strong
in water because of extensive hydrogen bonding.
These hydrogen bonds between water molecules in
the liquid lead to the large value of ΔHvap. If a
material with a small heat of vaporization were
substituted for water, much more of it would be
required to absorb the same amount of heat. The
large heat of vaporization coupled with the relative abundance of water has led to its widespread use in the
energy sector of the economy.

Revision: 01
17
Figure 7. The figure shows how the temperature of a 500-g sample of H 2O varies as it absorbs heat. beginning with
ice at –50°C. At segment (1), the T of the ice rises until the MP of 0°C. In region (2), ice melts at a
constant T=0°C until it is converted into liquid. In region (3), only liquid water is present, and its
temperature rises until the BP of 100°C. In region (4), the water boils at a constant T of 100°C until it is
A.10. Heat of Reaction
The importance of chemistry to the energy economy arises from the fact that there are enthalpy change
in chemical reactions as well. This enthalpy change is commonly referred to as heat of reaction.
a.10.1. Bonds and Energy
Chemical reactions involve energy changes because chemical bonds are broken and formed
when reactants are transformed into products.
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
In Lewis structures for the reactants and products are:
Reactant side: C – H single bonds = 4 Product side: C ꓿ O double bonds = 2

O ꓿ O double bonds = 2 O – H single bonds = 4
> All bonds in the reactants must be broken; that will require an input of energy.
> Energy released to form new bonds > energy required to break the original bonds; Exothermic rxn
> Energy released to form new bonds < energy required to break the original bonds; Endothermic rxn
> ΔH for the combustion of one mol of methane is -890.4 KJ.
The overall energetics of a chemical reaction can be summarized in a thermochemical

equation (TCE).
Ex. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) ΔH = -890.4 KJ
Two things this equation shows:
a. The TCE reaction tells whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic.

b. The TCE reaction tells exactly how much heat will be released or absorbed
Revision: 01
18
2CH4(g) + 4O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) ΔH = -1780.8 kJ
a.10.2. Heats of Reaction for Some Specific Reactions
Some classes of chemical reactions have been assigned their own label for heats of reactions.
a. The heat of combustion (ΔHcom) is the amount of heat released when a substance is
burned.
b. The heat of formation (ΔHform) is the heat necessary for the formation of a compound.
c. The heat of solution (ΔHsol) is the heat involved when a substance is dissolved in a
solution.
d. The heat of dissociation (ΔHdis) is the heat involved when a compound (electrolytes)
dissociates in a solution.
e. The heat of neutralization (ΔHneut) is the heat that accompanies the neutralization of a
base and an acid.
A formation reaction is the chemical reaction by which one mole of a compound is formed
from its elements in their standard states.
The standard states is the most stable form of the element at room temperature (25 oC) and
pressure (1 atm). For example, the formation reaction for carbon monoxide is
1
C(s) + O2(g) → CO(g) ΔH o = ΔHfo [CO(g)]
2
Note: The heat of formation for any element in its standard state must always be zero.
a.10.3. Hess’s Law and Heats of Reaction
The enthalpy changes in chemical reactions play an important role in a wide range of situations.
Enthalpies may be determined directly by calorimetric means. BUT ithey can be indirectly using
Hess’s Law:
Hess’s Law
The enthalpy change for any process is independent of the particular way the process is carried
out. This means that enthalpy is a state function. A state is a variable whose value depends only on
the state of the system and not on its history.
For a chemical reaction, the concept of a state function can be very important. Because enthalpy
is a state function, a way to determine the change in enthalpy is to consider any particular path that
leads from the reactants to the desired products. The block diagram below illustrates this fact:
Fig. 8. Conceptual diagram representing

Hess’s law. Because enthalpy is a state
function, we can choose any convenient path
from the initial state to the final state and use
that path to calculate the enthalpy change.
The desired enthalpy change could be

obtained via either of two alternative
pathways:
Revision: 01
19
ΔHdesired = ΔHAi + ΔHAf

ΔHdesired = ΔHBi + ΔHBf
Fig. 9. Enthalpy diagram for the combustion of

methane. Here we imagine that one mole of CH4 is
first converted to CO (step 1) and that the CO then
reacts further to form CO2 (step 2). If we know the
values of ΔH1 and ΔH2, we can use them to
calculate ΔHcomb.
The enthalpy diagram for the combustion of methane may either be complete producing carbon
dioxide directly, or incomplete, producing carbon monoxide.
Illustrative Problem. Sulfur trioxide reacts with water to form sulfuric acid, a major contributor to
acid rain. One origin of SO 3 is the combustion of sulfur, which is present in small quantities in coal,
according to the following equation.
3
S(s) + O2(g) → SO3(g)
2
Given the thermochemical information below, determine the heat of reaction for this reaction
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔHo = -296.8 KJ
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2 SO3(g) ΔHo = -197.0 KJ
3
Given : Target reaction: S(s) + O2(g) → SO3(g) ΔHo = ?
2
Required : ΔHo = ? for the rx using the two sets of reactions given
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔHo = -296.8 KJ
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2 SO3(g) ΔHo = -197.0 KJ
Solution : The each of the two reactions should be arranged in such a way that when they are added,
the resulting reaction will look like the target reaction given.
To do that, the following should be done:
1
a. Reaction 2 must be multiplied by .
2
1
b. Its ΔHo must also be multiplied by
2
c. Add the resulting reactions and their change in enthalpies taking account the signs.
Since the two SO2 compounds are on different sides of the equation, they should cancel
out.
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔHo = -296.8 KJ
1
x [2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2 SO3(g) ΔHo = -197.0 KJ]
2
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔHo = -296.8 KJ

Revision: 01
20
1
SO2(g) + O2(g) → SO3(g) ΔHo = - 98.5 KJ
2
3
S(s) + O2(g) → SO3(g) ΔHo = -395.3 kJ Answer
a.10.4. 2
Formation

Use the following thermochemical equations as needed to find the heat of formation of diamond:
C(diamond) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔHo = -395.3 KJ
2 CO2(g) → 2 CO(g) + O2(g) ΔHo = 566.0 KJ
C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔHo = -395.3 KJ
2 CO(g) → C(graphite) + CO 2(g) ΔHo = -172.5 KJ
Reactions and Hess’s Law

Hess’s law is also useful in calculating the enthalpy change of any chemical reaction. Fig. 9
shows how this useful scheme arises.
Fig. 10. The conceptual diagram shows how to use tabulated
enthalpies of formation to calculate the enthalpy change
for a chemical reaction.
The graph tells that the reactants are converted to

elements in their standard states then recombine
to form the products.
Step 1 is the decomposition of reactants into elements in their standard states. But this is just the
opposite of the formation reaction of the reactants, so the enthalpy change of the process is
-ΔHfo (reactants).
Step 2 is the formation of the products from elements in their standard states; has an enthalpy change
of ΔHfo (products).
The first summation is overall the reactants The second is over all of the products
Illustrative Example. Use tabulated data to find the heat of combustion of one mole of propane, C 3H8
to form gaseous C and liquid water.
Given : Combustion of one mole of propane, C3H8 to form gaseous C and liquid water.
Rx: C3H8(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Revision: 01
21
Required : ∆ H c =?
Solution : Step 1. Write a balanced chemical equation for the process

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l)
Step 2. Get the enthalpies of formation of each compound and multiply by their
corresponding heats of formation.
ΔHo: C3H8(g) = -103.8 kJ O2(g) = 0
H2O(l) = -285.8 kJ CO2(g) = -393.5 kJ
Step 3. Compute enthalpy
ΔHo = 3 mol ΔHfo(CO2) + 4mol ΔHfo(H2O) - 1 mol ΔHfo(C3H8) - 5mol (0)
= 3 mol(-393.5 kJ/mol) + 4 mol (-285.8 kJ/mol) - 1 mol (-103.8 KJ/mol)
= 2219.9 KJ
Illustrative Problem. Ethanol, C2H5OH is used to introduce oxygen into some blends of gasoline. It
has a heat of combustion of 1366.8 KJ/mol. What is the heat of formation of ethanol?
Given : C2H5OH(l) + 3 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l) ΔHo = -1366.8KJ
Required: Heat of formation of ethanol
kJ kJ
Solution : ∆ H Of CO =−393.5 ∆ H Of O =0
2 ,g
mol 2
mol
kJ kJ
∆ H Of H O, g =−285.8 ∆ H Of C =?
2
mol 2 H5 OH ,l
mol
ΔHo = 2 mol ΔHfo [CO2(g)] + 3 mol ΔHfo [H2O(g)] - 1 mol ΔHfo [C2H5OH(l)] - 3 mol ∆ H of ¿(g)]
O
-1366.8 kJ = [2 mol(-395.5 kJ/mol)+3 mol(-285.8 kJ/mol)]- [1 mol ∆ H f C 2 H5 OH ,l
+ 3 mol(0)]
∆ H of C H
2 5
OH ,l =¿ -277.6 kJ/mol Answer

1. Use heat of formation data to calculate ΔHo for the following reaction:
ClO2(g) + O(g) → ClO(g) + O2(g)
2. Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons leads to the generation of carbon monoxide rather than
carbon dioxide. As a result improperly vented furnaces can poison people who live in an
affected building because the toxicity of CO. Calculate the heat of reaction of reaction for the
incomplete combustion of methane, CH4(g), to yield liquid water and CO(g).

Revision: 01
22
A.11. Energy and Stoichiometry

The ability to predict the energetic consequences of a chemical reaction can be developed by a
treatment of energy in many similar ways to stoichiometry problems.
The mole is the heart of stoichiometry problems. Figure 10 shows the schematics of the stoichiometric
approach.
Fig. 11. This flow chart shows the

sequence of steps needed to
calculate the amount of
energy released or absorbed
when a chemical reaction is
The reaction between nitrogen gas and oxygen to form nitric oxide is a classic example. It occurs as a
side reaction when hydrocarbons are burned in internal combustion engines (ICE). The exothermic
combustion reaction uses air which is 21% oxygen and 78% N 2.
N 2 ( g) + O 2( g) → 2 NO(g) ∆ H o = 180.5 kJ
The nitric oxide gas formed is an important species in several pollution pathways and an irritant when
present at low levels. The formation of nitrogen dioxide whose brown color is largely responsible for
the dark haze typical of urban smog.
Illustrative Problem. An engine generates 15.7 g of nitric oxide gas during a laboratory test. How
much heat was absorbed in producing this NO?
Given : 15.7 g of nitric oxide gas
Required : heat absorbed in producing the NO
Solution : N 2 ( g) + O 2( g) → 2 NO(g) ∆ H o = 180.5 kJ

1 mol NO
n NO =15.7 g NO x = 0.523 mol NO
30.0 g NO
From the reaction, 2 moles of NO are produced absorbing about 180.5kJ of heat. For a 15.7 g NO:
180.5 KJ
∆ H =n x ∆ H o =0.532 mol x
2 mol NO
∆ H =47.2 kJ Answer

If 124 kJ of heat is absorbed in a reaction that forms nitric oxide from nitrogen and oxygen, what
mass of NO must have been produced? What mass of N 2 was consumed.
Revision: 01
23
A.12. Energy Density and Fuels

When considering the economic merits of a particular fuel, several factors come to the fore:
a. The availability of technology for extracting it
b. The amount of pollution released by its combustion.
c. Relative safety.
d. The energy density of the fuel which is the amount of energy that can be released per gram
of fuel burned.
Table 4. Energy densities for a few possible fuel
=================================================================
fuel Energy Density (MJ/kg)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hydrogen 142.0
Methane 55.5
Octane 47.9
Propane 50.3
Aviation gasoline 43.1
Coal, anthracite 31.4
Diesel fuel 45.3
Oil, crude (petroleum) 41.9
Oil, heating 42.5
Gasoline, automotive 45.8
Kerosene 46.3
Wood, oven dry 20.0
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A.13. Batteries
The absorbed or released energy in the form of heat when fuels are burned is the most common
manifestation of energy in chemical reactions. However, there are other reactions that interconvert between
chemical energy and other forms of energy.
Ex. Glow sticks and fireflies involve release of energy as light rather than heat.
Battery – conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
The heart of any battery is electrochemistry. This is accomplished by the oxidation-reaction of some
elements and compounds.
In a standard alkaline battery, the important chemical reaction is
Zn(s) + MnO2(s) + H2O(l) → ZnO(s) + Mn(OH)2(s)
How does this reaction involve the transfer of electrons?
ZnO: The zinc would need a 2+ charge to balance the 2- charge on the oxygen
Zn reacts to form ZnO: Zinc loses two electrons.
Mn goes from a 4+ state in MnO2 to a 2+ state in Mn(OH)2 : so each atom gains two electrons.
The net transfer of electrons is from zinc and manganese.
Revision: 01
24
The design of the battery

physically separates the zinc and
manganese dioxide from one
another to ensure that the
electrons are transferred.
Batteries on reactions that
absorbed flow through the
external circuit as the reaction
proceeds.
Fig. 12 Construction of a typical

alkaline battery is illustrated
V. TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Answer the following questions:
A. Defining Energy
1.Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy.
2. Define the term internal energy.
3. How fast (in meters per second) must an iron ball with a mass of 56.6 g be traveling in order to have a
kinetic energy of 15.75 J? The density of iron is 7.87 g/cm3 .
4. What is the kinetic energy of a single molecule of oxygen if it is traveling at 1.5 × 103 m/s?
5. The kinetic energy of molecules is often used to induce chemical reactions. The bond energy in an O2
molecule is 8.22 × 10–19 J. Can an O2 molecule traveling at 780 m/s provide enough energy to break the
O"O bond? What is the minimum velocity of an O2 molecule that would give a kinetic energy capable of
breaking the bond if it is converted with 100% efficiency.
B. Energy Transformation and conservation of energy

1. State the first law of thermodynamics briefly in your own words.
2. Which type of energy, heat or work, is “valued” more by society? What evidence supports your judgment?
3. If a machine does 4.8 × 103 kJ of work after an input of 7.31 × 104 kJ of heat, what is the change in
internal energy for the machine?
4. Calculate (a) q when a system does 54 J of work and its energy decreases by 72 J and (b) ∆ E for a gas
that releases 38 J of heat and has 102 J of work done on it.
5. If the algebraic sign of ∆ E is negative, in which direction has energy flowed?
C. Heat capacity and calorimetry

1. Define the term calorimetry.
2. For the example of shallow water and sandy beaches, which material has a larger heat capacity or specific
heat? How does a hot day at the beach provide evidence for your answer?
3. A metal radiator is made from 26.0 kg of iron. The specific heat of iron is 0.449 J/g °C. How much heat
must be supplied to the radiator to raise its temperature from 25.0 to 55.0°C?
4. The material typically used to heat metal radiators is water. If a boiler generates water at 79.5°C, what
mass of water was needed to provide the heat required in the previous problem? Water has a specific heat
of 4.184 J/g °C.

Revision: 01
25
5. Copper wires used to transport electrical current heat up because of the resistance in the wire. If a 140-g
wire gains 280 J of heat, what is the change in temperature in the wire? Copper has a specific heat of
0.384 J/g °C.
D. Enthalpy
1. Under what conditions does the enthalpy change equal the heat of a process?
2. Why is enthalpy generally more useful than internal energy in the thermodynamics of real world systems?
3. Define the terms exothermic and endothermic.
4. List at least two phase changes that are exothermic processes.
5. What happens to the temperature of a material as it undergoes an endothermic phase change? If heat is
added, how can the temperature behave in this manner?
E. Hess’s Law and Heats of Reaction

1. When a chemical bond breaks, is energy absorbed or released?
2. Which of the following are state functions? (a) the volume of a balloon, (b) the time it takes to drive from
your home to your college or university, (c) the temperature of the water in a coffee cup, (d) the potential
energy of a ball held in your hand
3. Using these reactions, find the standard enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mol PbO(s) from lead
metal and oxygen gas. PbO(s) + C(graphite) : Pb(s) + CO(g) DH° = 106.8 kJ 2C(graphite) + O 2(g) :
2CO(g) ΔH°= –221.0 kJ If 250. g of lead reacts with oxygen to form lead (II) oxide, what quantity of
thermal energy (in kJ) is absorbed or evolved?
4. The phase change between graphite and diamond is difficult to observe directly. Both substances can be
burned, however. From these equations, calculate ΔH° for the conversion of diamond into graphite. C(s,
graphite) + O2(g) : CO2(g) ΔH° = –393.51 kJ C(s, diamond) + O2(g) : CO2(g) ΔH° = –395.94 kJ
F. Energy and Stoichiometry

1. For the reaction
C2H2(g) + 2H2(g) → C2H6 ΔH° = –136 kJ
what are the ratios that can be defined between moles of substances and energy?
2. For the reaction
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g ΔH° = 180.5 kJ
how much energy is needed to generate 35 moles of NO(g)?
3. Silane, SiH4, burns according to the reaction, SiH4 + 2O2 → SiO2 + 2H2O, with ΔH ° = –1429 kJ. How
much energy is released if 15.7 g of silane is burned?
VI. RECOMMENDED SUPPLEMENTARY LEARNING MATERIALS AND RESOURCES

A. Videos
1. Metric system review (https://youtu.be/b2JCZDeLGF4)\

2. Energy & Chemistry: Crash Course Chemistry #17 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqtUWyDR1fg
3. Calorimetry: Crash Course Chemistry #19 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JuWtBR-rDQk
4. Hess's Law and Heats of Formation - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2q2u5sj4V00
VII. FLEXIBLE TEACHING LEARNING MODALITY (FTLM) ADOPTED

Online: Zoom, Edmodo, Google classroom, FB Messenger
Remote: Modules, Exercises, Problem sets
VIII. ASSESSMENT TASK

IX. REFERENCES
1. Brown, Larry; Holme, Tom. Chemistry for Engineering, 2nd Ed. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd,
2012. ISBN-13:978-981-4392-99-0
Revision: 01
26
2. Helmenstine, Ann Marie, PhD. “Introduction to Stoichiometry”.Thoughco, February11, 2020.

Thoughtco.com/introduction-to-stoichiometry-609201
3. Myers, R. Thomas; Oldham, Keith B.; Tocci, Salvatore (2000). Chemistry. Austin, Texas: Holt Rinehart
Winston. ISBN 0-03-052002-9 .

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Republic of the Philippines

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

I. MODULE 2. Energy and Chemistry

III. Learning Outcomes/Objectives

After mastering this module, you should be able to:

IV. Leaning Content: Energy and Chemistry

A.1. What is energy

Energy is defined as the ability to do useful work.

A2. Kinds and Forms of Energy

a.2.1. Kinds of Energy

Potential energy ¿ E p =mg ∆ h (Eq. 2)

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

Given : A lump of ice fall from an airplane

Grasping the Concept

a.2.2. Forms of Energy

A.3. Heat and Work

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

Hydrocarbon + O2(g) : CO2(g) + H2O(g)

A.4. Units of Energy

Work = Force x distance W=Fxs (Eq. 3)

A.5. Energy Transformation and Conservation of Energy

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

a. One must specify precisely what is being studied.

a.5.1. Modes of Energy Transfer

For all systems: ΔE = Efinal – Einitial (Eq. 7)

a.5.2. Convention of Energy Transfer

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

A system can change its internal energy in two ways:

1. By losing some energy to the surroundings.

E Final < Einitial ∆ E< 0

2. By gaining some energy from the Surroundings

Some examples of Heat and Work Transfer

Grasping the Concept

ΔEsurroundings = - ΔEsystem (Eq. 9)

a.5.4. Energy Transfer as Heat Only

1. Heat is flowing out from the system

2. Heat is flowing into the system

Understanding the Concept

There are also two possibilities:

1. Work is DONE BY the system

System: The atoms making up the substances

a.5.6. Summary of Sign Convention for w, q and Final State ΔE

A.6. Resolving the Energy Issue

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Table 1. Comparison of efficiencies of different equipment used for work generation.

A.7. Heat Capacity and Calorimetry

a.7.1 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

q = mcΔT (Eq. 13)

where: q = the specific heat in terms of mass, J

q = nCpΔT (Eq. 14)

where: q = the specific heat in terms of mole, J

Note: >Cp indicates the value is measured at constant pressure

Given : Al m = 24 g T1 = ? T2 = ? ∆ T =T 2−T 1=15.0o C

Given: Warm water in a glass m = 250.0 g T = 78.0oC

Grasping the Concept

Known amount of heat = calorimeter constant × ΔT

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Fig. 4. A bomb calorimeter is a

Given: A calorimeter under calibration

Step 2: Determination of heat evolved by fuel

qfuel = - qcalorimeter = - 615J since the fuel releases heat

Calculating energy density:

Energy density =−¿ (Eq. 16)