Systems of

the Human
Body.

• By: Mark Kenneth Dairo

Recall

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Digestive System

• Function: responsible for breaking down

food into smaller components that can be
absorbed by the body for use in energy
production, growth, and repair.
• Parts: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus,
as well as associated organs such as the
liver, pancreas, appendix, and gallbladder.

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 Digestive System
Processes:.
1. Mouth - food is chewed and mixed with saliva, which contains
enzymes that help break down carbohydrates.
2. Esophagus - It uses a series of coordinated muscle contractions
called peristalsis to move the food down to the stomach.
3. Stomach - food is mixed with gastric juices, which contain
hydrochloric acid and enzymes that break down proteins.
4. Small intestine - The majority of the nutrients from the food are
absorbed into the bloodstream.
5. Large Intestine - the remaining waste products are passed where
water is absorbs and the waste is formed into feces.
6. Rectum and Anus - The feces are then eliminated from the body
through the rectum and anus during bowel movement.

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Digestive System
Key Notes!
• Peristalsis – coordinated muscle contractions to move the food in
the digestive tract.
• Chyme – mixture of food and digestive juices that is produced in the
stomach
• Bolus - Food that has been chewed and mixed in the mouth with
saliva
• Villi - The small intestine is lined with tiny finger-like projections called
villi, which increase the surface area available for absorption.
• The liver produces bile, which helps break down fats in the small
intestine. The pancreas secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar
levels, while the gallbladder stores and releases bile into the small
intestine as needed.

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Muscular System
• Function: responsible for the movement of
the body and maintaining posture.
• Types:
• Skeletal muscle: attached to bones
• Cardiac muscle: walls of the heart
• Smooth muscle: walls of internal organs
(e.g. small intestine, stomach, blood
vessels)

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Muscular System
Skeletal muscles.
• The largest and most numerous type of
muscle cells in the body
• They are responsible for voluntary
movements such as walking, jumping, and
lifting weights.
• These cells are multinucleated and have a
striated appearance due to the
arrangement of actin and myosin
filaments within the cell.

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Parts of Skeletal Muscle

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Muscular System
Smooth muscles.
• Smooth muscle cells are found in the walls of
internal organs such as the digestive system,
respiratory system, and blood vessels.
• They are responsible for involuntary
movements such as the contraction of the
stomach during digestion or the constriction
of blood vessels in response to stress or
injury.
• Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped and
have a single nucleus.

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Muscular System
Cardiac muscles.
• Cardiac muscle cells, also known as
cardiomyocytes, are found in the heart.
• Responsible for the rhythmic contraction of
the heart that pumps blood throughout the
body.
• These cells are also striated, branched and
have a single nucleus.

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Integumentary System
• Function: It serves to protect the body from
external damage, regulate body temperature,
and help with sensory perception.
• Three Layers of Skin
• Epidermis: outermost layer and composed
of keratinocytes.
• Dermis: second layer composed of
collagen, glands, and elastic fibers.
• Hypodermis: the subcutaneous layer that
contains fat and connective tissues.

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Integumentary System
Key Notes!!!
• Hair and nails are also part of the integumentary system.
• Hair is composed of keratin and grows from hair follicles located in the
dermis.
• Nails are composed of keratin and grow from nail beds located in the
epidermis.
• The integumentary system also contains several types of glands.
• Sweat glands produce sweat, which helps regulate body temperature and
eliminate waste products.
• Oil glands produce sebum, which helps keep the skin and hair moisturized.
• Mammary glands produce milk in females.

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Lymphatic System
• Function: maintain the body's fluid balance,
remove waste and foreign substances, and
help defend against infection and disease.
• It consist of
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Bone marrow.

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Lymphatic System
• Lymphatic vessels:
• are thin-walled vessels that transport lymph
• a clear fluid that contains white blood cells, throughout the body.
• They are similar in structure to veins and have one-way valves that prevent
backflow.
• Lymph nodes:
• small, bean-shaped structures located throughout the body along lymphatic
vessels.
• They filter lymph, removing bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances.
• Lymphocytes are also found in lymph nodes and help identify and destroy
foreign invaders.

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Lymphatic System
• Spleen:
• largest lymphatic organ and is located in the upper left part of the abdomen.
• It filters blood, removing old or damaged red blood cells, and also helps
fight infections.
• Thymus:
• a gland located in the chest that plays a key role in the development and
maturation of T-lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell that helps defend
against infection.
• Bone marrow:
• spongy tissue found inside bones that produces blood cells, including
lymphocytes

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Endocrine System
The endocrine system is a complex
network of glands and organs that secrete
hormones into the bloodstream to
regulate various physiological processes in
the body. It relies on chemical
messengers called hormones to
communicate with target cells and
tissues.

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Endocrine System

The endocrine system is

comprised of several major
glands, including the pituitary
gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, adrenal
glands, pancreas, and gonads
(testes and ovaries).

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Endocrine System (Glands)
Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland, also known as the "master gland," is located at
the base of the brain and is responsible for regulating the activity of
other endocrine glands. It produces several hormones, including:
• Growth hormone (GH): stimulates growth and development in children and
adolescents
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): regulates the activity of the thyroid gland
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): regulates the activity of the adrenal glands
• Prolactin: stimulates milk production in lactating women

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Endocrine System (Glands)
Pineal gland
The pineal gland is located in the center of the brain, between the
two hemispheres, and is shaped like a pinecone. It is for regulating
the body's sleep-wake cycle, also known as the circadian rhythm.
• Melatonin: It is produced in response to darkness and helps regulate the
timing and quality of sleep. It is also involved in regulating other
physiological processes, such as body temperature, blood pressure, and
immune function.

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Endocrine System (Glands)
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is located in the neck and produces hormones that
regulate metabolism. The two primary thyroid hormones are:
• Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4): increases metabolic rate and is necessary for
growth and development.

Parathyroid Gland
The parathyroid glands are small glands located in the neck.
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH): regulates calcium levels in the body.

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Endocrine System (Glands)
Adrenal Gland
The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and produce
several hormones, including:
• Cortisol: regulates metabolism and helps the body respond to stress
• Aldosterone: regulates salt and water balance in the body
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine: help the body respond to stress
• Epinephrine/Adrenalin: act mainly as a hormone
• Norepinephrine/noradrenalin: acts as a neurotransmitter

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Endocrine System (Glands)
Pancreas
The pancreas is a glandular organ located behind the stomach that
produces several hormones, including:
• Insulin: regulates blood sugar levels by promoting the uptake of glucose
by cells
• Glucagon: raises blood sugar levels by promoting the breakdown of
glycogen in the liver

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Endocrine System (Glands)
Gonads
The gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) produce
several hormones that regulate reproductive functions, including:
• Testosterone: responsible for male sexual development and function
• It regulates sex drives, bone mass, fat distribution, muscle mass and
strength, and the production of sperm.
• Estrogen and progesterone: responsible for female sexual development
and function
• It regulates the uterus and the menstrual cycle.

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Endocrine System (Hormones)
Key Notes!!!
1. Growth Hormone (GH): stimulates growth and development in children and adolescents, and helps
regulate metabolism in adults.
2. Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4): regulate metabolism and energy production in the body.
3. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): regulates calcium levels in the body by stimulating the release of
calcium from bones and increasing its absorption in the gut and kidneys.
4. Cortisol: helps the body respond to stress by increasing blood sugar levels, suppressing the immune
system, and promoting the breakdown of fat and protein for energy.
5. Aldosterone: regulates salt and water balance in the body by increasing the reabsorption of sodium
and water in the kidneys.
6. Epinephrine and Norepinephrine: also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline, these hormones
help the body respond to stress by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.

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Endocrine System (Hormones)
7. Insulin: regulates blood sugar levels by promoting the uptake of glucose by cells, and helps store
excess glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
8. Glucagon: raises blood sugar levels by promoting the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and the
release of glucose into the bloodstream.
9. Testosterone: responsible for male sexual development and function, and helps regulate bone
density, muscle mass, and red blood cell production.
10. Estrogen and Progesterone: responsible for female sexual development and function, and help
regulate the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and bone density.
11. Oxytocin: stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth, and helps promote bonding between
mothers and infants.
12. Vasopressin (ADH): regulates water balance in the body by increasing water reabsorption in the
kidneys.

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 Summarize (Endocrine Glands)

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Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex
network of nerves, neurons, and other
specialized cells that communicate with
each other to control and coordinate
the body's functions. It is the body's
control center and helps to maintain
homeostasis, or a stable internal
environment, by responding to internal
and external stimuli.

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Nervous System
The nervous system is divided into two
main parts:
• Central nervous system (CNS): made
up of the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): is
composed of all the nerves and
ganglia outside of the CNS.

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Nervous System
The nervous system is divided into two
main parts:
• Central nervous system (CNS): made
up of the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): is
composed of all the nerves and
ganglia outside of the CNS.

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Nervous System (CNS)
• The brain is the command center of
the nervous system and controls all
bodily functions, including movement,
sensation, emotion, and thought.
• The spinal cord is a long, tubular
structure that runs from the base of
the brain to the lower back. It carries
messages between the brain and the
rest of the body.

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Nervous System (PNS)
The PNS is divided into two main parts:
• Somatic Nervous System: controls
voluntary movements and sensations, such as
walking and feeling a touch on your skin.
• Autonomic Nervous System: controls
involuntary functions, such as heart rate,
breathing, and digestion.

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Nervous System (PNS)
Somatic Nervous System:
• Sensory System – Peripheral → CNS
• Motor System – CNS → Peripheral
Autonomic Nervous System:
• Parasympathetic - “rest and digest” and occur when the body is at
rest (digestion, relaxation, and slowing the heart rate.)
• Sympathetic - "fight or flight" response when the body is faced with a
perceived threat or stressor. (increasing heart rate, respiration rate, and
blood pressure)

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Nervous System (Neurons)
Key Notes!!!
• Neurons have three main parts: the cell body, dendrites, and axon.
• The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles.
• Dendrites: short, branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons.
• Axon: long, thin extension that transmits signals to other neurons or to
muscles or glands.
• Neurons communicate with each other at synapses, where chemical
neurotransmitters are released from one neuron and bind to receptors on
another neuron.

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Nervous System (Neurotransmitters)
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are released from neurons
and bind to receptors on other cells.
1.Acetylcholine: involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory.
2.Dopamine: involved in movement, motivation, and reward.
3.Serotonin: involved in mood, appetite, and sleep.
4.Norepinephrine: involved in arousal and the "fight or flight" response.
5.GABA: involved in inhibiting neural activity and reducing anxiety.
6.Glutamate: involved in stimulating neural activity and enhancing memory
and learning.

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 Summarize (Nervous System)

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