Demonstrating Dynamic

Wireless Charging
of an Electric Vehicle
The benefit of electrochemical capacitor smoothing

by John M. Miller, Omer C. Onar,

Cliff White, Steven Campbell,
Chester Coomer, Larry Seiber,
Raymond Sepe, Jr., and Anton Steyerl

T
he wireless charging of an electric vehicle (EV) while it is in
motion presents challenges in terms of low-latency communica-
tions for roadway coil excitation sequencing and maintenance of
lateral alignment, plus the need for power-flow smoothing. This
article summarizes the experimental results on power smoothing
of in-motion wireless EV charging performed at the Oak Ridge National Labo-
ratory (ORNL) using various combinations of electrochemical capacitors at
the grid side and in the vehicle. Electrochemical capacitors of the symmet-
ric carbon–carbon type from Maxwell Technologies comprised the
in-vehicle smoothing of wireless charging current to the EV bat-
tery pack. Electro Standards Laboratories (ESL) fabricated the
passive and active parallel lithium-capacitor (LiC) unit used
to smooth the grid-side power. The power pulsation reduc-
tion was 81% on the grid by the LiC, and 84% on the vehicle
for both the LiC and the carbon ultracapacitors (UCs).

Wireless Power Transfer Technology

Wireless in-motion charging of an EV has been a topic of
interest for decades and was proposed in the 1950s as a means
to supply power to mining cars and later to rail cars to eliminate
the pantograph sliding contact. Covic and Boys [1] provide an excellent
treatment of inductive power transfer (IPT) for transportation and cite the
hurdles facing EV charging while in motion. Transferring power to vehicles

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPEL.2014.2300978

Date of publication: 11 March 2014 © image licensed by ingram publishing

12 IEEE Power Electronics Magazine z March 2014 2329-9207/14/$31.00©2014IEEE

dynamically has been applied in factory automation using
buried cables for propulsion power, alignment, and commu-
nications. Implementing the same features into passenger
vehicles traveling at highway speeds exacerbates the chal-
lenges and illuminates the need for research on dynamic
wireless power transfer (WPT), whether based on continu-
ous lengths of buried cables or a series of coils, appropri-
ately energized by high-frequency (HF) current. The prob-
lem of coupling power over relatively large gaps, such as the
ground clearance of automobiles, has been solved using HF
magnetic resonance. For continuous spans of buried cable,
the power transfer will be smooth and the reactive power
burden will be high and manageable, but alignment may be
difficult to maintain without dynamic longitudinal stability
control of the vehicle. In the case of long tracts of buried
coils, the longitudinal stability may be less demanding and
the reactive burden will be lower, but the coil size and pitch
along the roadway will introduce a speed-dependent pulsat-
ing character to the both grid-side power supply and vehicle
charging power. This article addresses the issues of power
pulsation during dynamic charging on the roadway.
In 2011, the ORNL funded a development and demonstra-
tion project to showcase ORNL’s WPT technology applied
to in-motion charging, as shown in Figure 1. Over the past
two years, the technology has been developed and demon-
strated, as recently reported in an internal press release by
the authors.
“ORNL dynamic wireless charging demonstrates grid-
side and in-vehicle power smoothing.” In-motion wireless
charging of EVs can cause power pulsations in the vehi-
cle battery and the grid supply. These pulsations are due
to the motion of the vehicle capture coil as it passes over
a series of roadway embedded coils and the resultant pat-
tern of alignment and straddling of their magnetic fields.
It is well known that battery charging with a pulsating
current can deteriorate the battery service life, and
power pulsations to the utility are likewise detrimental
to power quality. The ORNL WPT team, in collaboration
with industry vendors, has now demonstrated for the
first time the benefits of using local power caches at the
trackside HF converter and in the vehicle, between the
secondary, or capture, coil and battery pack to mitigate
power pulsations.
Local power storage was implemented using two differ-
ent high-power capacitor technologies: a pack of carbon
UCs fabricated at ORNL using cells produced by Maxwell
Technologies Inc. and operating in passive parallel with the
Global Electric Motors (GEM) EV battery pack and LiCs
operating in active parallel with the grid-side power supply.
The active parallel system was produced by ESL and loaned
The active parallel
combination of LiC
energy storage and the
grid supply resulted in
very uniform power
draw from the grid.
March 2014 z IEEE Power Electronics Magazine 13
 at the grid side, and a second LiC is used in passive parallel
with the vehicle battery.

ORNL In-Motion Wireless Charging

fig 1 The ORNL in-motion WPT charging of an EV. (Photo cour-
tesy of ORNL.)
to the ORNL team. Active parallel means that a high-power,
bidirectional controllable power flow, dc–dc converter
interfaces the LiCs to the dc input of the WPT HF inverter.
This configuration is used only on the grid-side experimen-
tal work.
The ORNL WPT team has demonstrated power smooth-
ing in test drives of the GEM EV over an energized track
consisting of six primary coils to which HF current is sup-
plied sequentially and in synchronism with vehicle position.
This article summarizes the results obtained from the
use of a carbon UC in passive parallel with the demonstra-
tion vehicle battery pack and for the LiC in active parallel
In-motion wireless charging consists of a sequence of road-
way embedded coils, an energized track, in which individ-
ual coils or pairs are sequentially energized by a trackside
HF power inverter in synchronism with vehicle position.
The ORNL in-motion charging demonstrator is shown sche-
matically in Figure 2 having the following key functions:
■■the primary coils connected in pairs and in phase (i.e.,
fountain field), singly tuned to 22 kHz
■■the coil sequencing controlled by vehicle passage using
trackside photocell interruption
■■the power level controlled by HF inverter rail voltage
■■the single secondary, or capture coil, centrally mounted
to the demo vehicle chassis
■■the Maxwell Technologies UC pack in passive parallel
with demo vehicle battery pack
■■the ESL LiC rack in active parallel with the grid-side
power inverter (this apparatus was designed for both pas-
sive and active parallel connection)
■■Zlinx radio communications between the vehicle and
grid-side controller.
In-Motion Coupler Design
A great deal of experimental design work has been per-
formed at ORNL on WPT couplers, the results of which
favor square over circular designs. The in-motion demon-
stration system used these earlier circular coils with half-to-
full Litz cable diameter spacing of the planar spiral winding.
The rectangular designs having more compact planar wind-
ings are now viewed as superior for in-motion charging due
to better coupling during overlap.

GEM Vehicle
80-V Lead–Acid
Lead–Acid Gateway Control
UC Module
80-V Carbon
Ultracapacitor
220 Vac 90-270 V 30 S # 1 P # 650 F

DSP
Commercial Power
Power Supply K1 K2 K3
P = 2.5 kW

Setting
Radio
Modem Sequencing
Logic
Display State Photocell
of Charge Sequencing
LiC Commands
2,300 F, 3.5 V # 12

fig 2 The in-motion WPT charging system.

14 IEEE Power Electronics Magazine z March 2014

 T1 T3 HF
Lc1 Transformer

Factor Corrector
Primary Coil

Gate Driver 1

Gate Driver 2
C1

Power
ac 240 V C2
VP VS
T2 T4
Lc2
N

(a) Chassis
Coefficient of Coupling, k, 380-mm Coil, Ground
Nc = 7 Turn, f = 48 kHz (a)
0.4
Coefficient Coupling (#)

0.35
OC
0.3 Comp
0.25 L-Aid
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Coil Separation, d(mm)
(b) (b)

fig 3 (a) The circular coil and (b) characterization results. fig 5 (a) A schematic view of an HF power inverter and
(Photo courtesy of ORNL.) tuned primary coil. (b) The experimental HF SiC power
inverter. (Photo courtesy of ORNL.)

times the gap, d, or 400 mm. The results of coupling coeffi-

Litz Coil ac Resistance cient, k, testing are shown in Figure 3, where three indepen-
160 dent test methods were used. Note that at the working gap
140 Rac (mX)
Measured Data of 100 mm, both the open circuit and compensated methods
Resistance, Rac (mX)

120 are in excellent agreement, while the inductance-aiding

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Frequency (kHz)
fig 4 The measured and modeled R ac for a WPT coil. (Figure
courtesy of ORNL.)
All couplers are characterized in the laboratory for self-
inductance, ac resistance, and coupling coefficient as a
function of gap. Figure 3 shows the circular coil and char-
acterization results. The coil is planar spiral wound with
seven turns using cable guides interspersed with wedge-
shaped ferrite flux guides. The ferrite plates are covered
with a Kapton sheet for voltage isolation.
The circular coil shown in Figure 3 was designed for
operation at 48 kHz and a working gap of 100 mm, which is
the ground clearance of the GEM EV. For this ground clear-
ance, the coil should have a diameter of approximately four
method obtained using an Agilent instrument is somewhat
lower [2], [3]. A comprehensive list of WPT references that
cover the main aspects of wireless and IPT is included in the
“References” section. The coupling coefficient is defined as
the ratio of secondary coil captured flux to the primary coil
total flux generated by a specified current, taken as 10 A rms
in these laboratory characterization tests.
Coil resistance is a dominant contributor to coupler inef-
ficiency, plus the core loss contribution of the soft ferrite
materials used to guide flux and minimize fringe fields. Fig-
ure 4 shows the results of ac resistance testing on the planar
coil of Figure 3 at both 22 and 48 kHz. The experimental fit
to characterization data is given as (1) and shows that R ac
increases at the square of the frequency for this design. In
later designs, the exponent was reduced to 1.4 and lower.
The importance of R ac will become evident in later dis-
cussions on efficiency. The key components of frequency-
dependent R ac shown in Figure 4 include R dc + R skin + R prox,
where the proximity effect resistance R prox depends strongly
on the cable type (i.e., Litz cable bandwidth) and spacing.
R ac = R dc ;1 + 0.147 a 20 k E + R prox .(1)
f kHz 2

March 2014 z IEEE Power Electronics Magazine 15

 coupler performance is
not affected by the fre-
quency, other than cable
and core losses. However,
lacking suitable high-
power modules, multiple
IGBT TO247 devices con-
nected in parallel resulted
in more burden on the
gate drivers. Therefore,
fig 6 The trackside power electronics and thermal management: from left to right, the input power con-
tactor and filter, the HF power inverter and coolant lines, a pair of terminal blocks to which the HF trans- this design was set aside
former is attached, and, at the far right, the liquid-cooling reservoir, pump, condenser, and cooling fans. for a silicon carbide (SiC)
(Photo courtesy of ORNL.) power inverter [2]. In
addition, the ORNL team
WPT Fundamentals made significant contributions to WPT technology [3]–[13],
The HF power inverter shown in Figure 2 consists of power much of which was necessary for the proper execution of
insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) configured as a this in-motion demonstrator.
fully controlled H-bridge. Over the course of this project, the Primary-side HF power is synthesized by the H-bridge
ORNL team used 600-V silicon IGBTs operating at 23 kHz but inverter shown schematically in Figure 5, to which com-
capable of operating up to 28 kHz. With the availability of mands are sent for frequency and duty cycle from a digital
next-generation 150-kHz IGBTs, a trial inverter was fabricated signal processor (DSP) controller. More recent WPT designs
for operation at 48 kHz, with the intent of comparison testing at ORNL employ a controllable power factor corrector stage
in-motion WPT at a higher frequency. Hence, the need to for variable dc link voltage, hence power regulation. In the
characterize WPT components in this range is evident. The present configuration, the duty cycle is fixed at d = 0.8
based on earlier work
that revealed a very rapid
escalation in reactive
Yokagawa Uover: 400 ns 5 MS/s power at the source (V p
CH2 100 mVpk Iover: 400 ns 5 MS/s in Figure 5) as d " 0.2.
V_PR 175.0 V << Main:2,000 >> The source voltage (Vs in
I_PR 200.0 A
Figure 5) has two control
variables, voltage, U do,
and frequency, ~, given by
I_PR

r sin ` d 2 j
V_PR 4U do r
U s (t) =
$ cos (~t) (Vrms) .
I_PR -200.0 A (2)
V_PR -175.0 V

(a) The pr ima r y-side

track coils shown in Fig-
V_SEC 1.050 kV
I_SEC 62.50 A ure 1 and schematically in
Figure 5 are series tuned
to 22 kHz, and the dc
I_SEC link voltage, U do, is con-
trolled for the charging
V_SEC
power plus traction motor
demand of the GEM EV.
The power modules
I_SEC -62.50 A fabricated at the ORNL
V_SEC -1.050 kV
power electronics packag-
Stopped 121 2012/11/28 10:41:28 ing laboratory are mounted
(b)
to the liquid-cooled heat
fig 7 The voltage and current waveforms for WPT at 23.5 kHz: (a) the primary voltage (square
sink shown in Figure 5,
wave) and sinusoidal current and (b) the secondary voltage (clipped sine) and sinusoidal current. along with in-house-fabri-
(Figure courtesy of ORNL.) cated gate drivers and bus

16 IEEE Power Electronics Magazine z March 2014

work. This inverter was used for testing at 23 and 48 kHz using For series–parallel (S–P) tuned WPT (secondary paral-
gate drivers rated to 85 kHz. lel tuned), it is expected to see leading power factor at the
The trackside power inverter and supporting ther- secondary. This is evident in Figure 7, where secondary cur-
mal management apparatus are shown in Figure 6. The rent (taken at the coil terminal before the tuning capacitor)
control signals are brought in from the trackside control leads the terminal voltage (i.e., rectifier input). The ringing
electronics and sequencing box. The on the clipped sine-wave secondary
control and sequencing the National voltage is due to rectifier recovery.
Electrical Manufacturers Associa- The power is regulated by controlling
tion (NEMA) box is shown at the left the dc link voltage of the HF inverter.
in Figure 1, and it also contains the Circular coils exacer- When the coupling coils (as a pair)
track tuning capacitors. bate the magnitude of shown in Figure 3 are tested at a nomi-
nal z = 75-mm working gap, a duty
Primary-Side Power Regulation the power pulsation. ratio of d = 0.8, tuned to 22 kHz and
ORNL researchers devoted consider- Shifting to rectangular operating at f = 23.5 kHz into a bat-
able analytical effort and experimental tery emulator at dc output power
work to understanding the intricacies
coils for in-motion P0 = 2.0 kW, the real and reactive
of wireless charging, including this charging would be power flows are shown in Figure 8.
dynamic case. The most succinct This figure shows that S–P tuning
explanation is that WPT consists of a
preferable. results in a power transfer that is
loosely coupled transformer, tuned to peaked but with gentle side skirts when
resonance on the primary and second- off frequency. Note that the reactive
ary to manage its high leakage flux, power is always leading on the second-
and excited with quasi-square wave voltage (2). The LC ary (parallel capacitor effect), but the primary reactive power
tuned circuits on both the primary and secondary result in switches from leading to lagging as the operating frequency
fundamental, sinusoidal current, as shown in the screen shot crosses the tuned point. As expected, the coupler reactive
in Figure 7, which was taken from the Yokagawa PZ4000 power will be large.
power meter used in the experimental work on larger-size Other investigators have worked and are working on
square coils. WPT power flow control and regulation [14]–[33]. Research

2,200
Primary Active 3,500
Primary and Secondary

2,000
Primary and Secondary

Power Primary Active Power

1,800
Active Power (W)

3,000 Secondary Active

Active Power (W)

1,600 Secondary Active

Power 2,500 Power
1,400
1,200 2,000
1,000
800 1,500
600 First Second
1,000 Transmit Transmit
400 Coil Coil
200 500
0 0
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Frequency (kHz) Position Number
(a) (a)

1,500 3,000 Primary Reactive Power

Primary and Secondary
Primary and Secondary

Reactive Power (VA)

Primary Reactive
Reactive Power (VAr)

1,000 2,000 Secondary Reactive

500 Power Power
Secondary Reactive 1,000
0 First Second
Power 0 Transmit Transmit
-500 -1,000 Coil Coil
-1,000
-2,000
-1,500
-3,000
-2,000
-4,000
-2,500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Frequency (kHz) Position Number
(b)
(b)

fig 8 The power transfer of the coil shown in Figure 3: (a) fig 9 The power pulsations due to coil passage: (a) the real
Pin = 2.19 kW and P0 = 2.0 kW at 23.5 kHz into an 80- Vdc load power input at 23.5 kHz delivered to an 80- Vdc battery and
and (b) Q pri = 1.4 kVA and Q sec = - 1.7 kVA at 23.5 kHz. (b) the reactive power of the coils at 23.5 kHz.

March 2014 z IEEE Power Electronics Magazine 17

 In-Motion Wireless Charging
250
Powering First Powering Second Powering Third
Without Power Smoothing
200 Coil Pair Coil Pair Coil Pair In-motion wireless charging is not a
Primary Coil Current Routed

Vehicle Stays on
150 new concept, and early investigators
Top of the
sought out contactless power transfer
by Contactors (A)

100 Last Coil

for mining vehicles and rail cars in the
50
mid-20th century. Most recently, the
0
Korean Advanced Institute for Science
-50
and Technology has made dramatic
-100 progress using buried cable concepts,
-150 similar to [45], that are excited at one
-200 end of a long hairpin-style primary over
-250 which vehicles having polarized pickup
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
coils move longitudinally [47]–[49].
Time (s)
(a) Such systems use HF current injection
250 to manage the high reactive power
200 demand. The alternative, sequentially
Primary Coil Current Routed

Inverter Turn-Off Transition energized coils embedded into a road-

150 and Coil Current Fall
way that transfer power only when the
by Contactors (A)

100
50
vehicle secondary coil moves across
them, is the preferred method in the
0
ORNL system. The issue, as discussed
-50
in depth in [12], is the power pulsations
-100
on both the grid and vehicle sides; this
-150
is repeated in Figure 9, where the pulsa-
-200
tions are taken for the ruled position of
-250
3.967 3.9675 3.968 3.9685 3.969 3.9695 3.97 secondary coil moving across the pri-
Time (s) mary coil pair. Note the exchange of the
(b)
primary real and reactive power with
250
position but the consistently leading
200
Primary Coil Current Routed

secondary reactive power. The GEM EV

150 Inverter Turn-On Transition
onboard charger is rated a1.5 kW but
and Coil Current Rise
by Contactors (A)

100
also has some short-term faster charg-
50
ing capability. The ORNL system was
0
designed to match this charging require-
-50
ment while in motion. It is also appar-
-100
ent that circular coils exacerbate the
-150
magnitude of the power pulsation. Shift-
-200
ing to rectangular coils for in-motion
-250
charging would be preferable.
2

46

48
93

94

95
93

93

93

93

94

94

In ORNL’s experimental testing of the

99

99
9

9
9

9
3.

3.

3.
3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

3.

Time (s) GEM EV driving over the six-coil sequen-

(c) tially energized track, the power pulsa-
tions shown in Figure 9 are reflected in
fig 10 The grid-side HF inverter current: (a) primary current to six-coil energized the primary coil (two coils in series, sin-
track, (b) HF inverter current quenching during sequencing, and (c) HF inverter
gly tuned) current. This is shown in Fig-
current ringup during sequencing.
ure 10 as the HF inverter output current
waveform. In this compressed timescale
on wireless resonant-mode power transfer has increased view, the vehicle is traversing the coils at a15 mi/h
exponentially in the past three years. Much of this research resulting in three sets of double pulsation, with each
is derived from earlier fundamental work in electromag- set the same as in Figure 9. The sequencing transitions
netics for inductive heating and cooking [34]–[38]. For as a coil pair is dropped, and the adjacent pair is ener-
example, ORNL’s early experimental work [39]–[44] was gized. This is clearly shown as the vertical dead bands.
prompted by investigations into alternatives to, or what In this particular test run, the vehicle passes over the
comes after, hybrid EVs and the need for larger batteries coils and then parks over the last coil to illustrate sta-
[45], [46]. tionary charging.

18 IEEE Power Electronics Magazine z March 2014

 ac

Wireless
Charger
ac Grid

To
dc

dc

Controller
dc

LiC Module
(26.4–45.6 V)
192 F
(a) (b)

fig 11 (a) The ESL equipment rack and (b) the LiC modules fig 12 The ESL equipment rack.
installed in the GEM demo vehicle (used with permission from ESL).
(Photos courtesy of ORNL.)

With this preliminary testing, our

experimental results validate the con-
cern raised by others over power pulsa- 170
Powering First Powering Second
tions and their impact. Therefore, the Coil Pair Coil Pair Powering Third
165 Coil Pair
ORNL WPT team and our collabora-
Li-Ion Capacitor Voltage (V)

tor, ESL, undertook experimental work 160

Vehicle Stays on
using high-power capacitor technology Top of the Last Coil
155
for both grid-side and in-vehicle appli-
cation to smooth the power flow during 150
vehicle passage. 145
Consistent with LCR circuit response,
primary current quenching is very rapid 140
due to the inverter shutoff and the cou- 135
Inverter Inverter
pler stored energy being absorbed in Off Time
the HF inverter dc link capacitor. Dur- 130 Off Time
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5
ing primary coil excitation, the cur- Time(s)
rent ringup is consistent with the (a)
L coil /R ac time constant of the system
( L coil a 18 nH). The ringup time constant is 50
Powering First Powering Second
a175 ns, as can be observed in Figure 10(c). Coil Pair Coil Pair
For a high-leakage transformer (coupler) 40 Powering Third
Li-Ion Capacitor Current (A)

and coupling coefficient, k a 0.22 in this Coil Pair

experimental work. For two primary coils 30
in series, the resultant primary current Inverter
Off Time
will be the vector sum of the purely reac- Inverter
20 Off Time
tive magnetizing current and the load cur-
rent (harmonics excepted). Carrying out 10
the computations for P0 = 2 kW of through-
put power and given the dc link voltage, 0 Inverter
U do = 135 Vdc, then according to (2), the Off Time Vehicle Stays on
Inverter Off Time Top of the Last Coil
combined primary is being excited by -10
U s = 115.6 Vrms . The magnetizing current 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
is therefore Time(s)
(b)
Us
I m = j2~kL
coil

- j115.6 fig 13 The grid-side currents for the passive parallel LiC system: (a) the grid-side
= 2 (1.476e5) (0.22) (18e - 6)
LiC voltage annotated by coil number and (b) the LiC current for the grid-side

= - j98.88 A rms . (3) passive parallel test.

March 2014 z IEEE Power Electronics Magazine 19

 Similarly, the rectified load current can be approximated
dc Power Supply Current
20 as the ac equivalent, I r of dc load current into the battery
with Li-Ion Support (A) LiC Supply Bus LiC pack according to (4). The primary line current in resonance
15 Charging Charging
is then the vector sum of real and quadrature currents (5).
10
5 r P0
Ir =
2 2 Ud
0 Grid-Side 
Supply Current 2, 000
-5
= 1.11 80 = 27.8 A rms (4)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (s) I pri = I 2m + I 2r
(a) = (- 98.88) 2 + 27.8 2 
without Li-Ion Capacitor (A)

= 102.8 A rms . (5)

dc Power Supply Current

50
HF Inverter
40
Input Current This is consistent with the current magnitudes shown
30
in Figure 10, where (5) is equivalent to 145 A peak .
20
10
Experimental Results with LiC on the Primary Side
0
The main body of testing done at ORNL involved high-
-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 power capacitors. ESL fabricated the LiC equipment rack
Time(s) shown in Figure 11 that contains components for three indi-
(b) vidual tests: 1) a standalone LiC consisting of four 40-V
modules in series for grid-side passive parallel; 2) an LiC
fig 14 The grid-side currents with active parallel LiC system: plus dc–dc converter for active parallel demonstration on
(a) the grid-side supply current (13 A) and (b) the current deliv-
the grid side; and 3) a pair of 40-V LiC modules for in-vehicle
ered to the HF inverter.
installation and comparison with carbon UC in passive par-
allel with the GEM battery.
Figure 12 shows a block diagram of the active parallel
converter system used only on the grid side. It consists of
Current Without Energy Buffer (A)

a multiphase bidirectional half-bridge dc–dc converter, an

GEM Vehicle Lead-Acid Battery

20
Battery Charge
15 from Coils LiC module, and a controller. The dc–dc converter matches
10 the voltage and current levels of the LiC module with the
5 requirements of the wireless charger bus. The specifications
0 of the LiC module depend upon the acceptable charging
-5 power level from the grid and the pulse duration and duty
-10 Battery cycle of the power required by the wireless charger. During
-15 Discharge high-power transients, such as when a vehicle drives over
for Traction the charging coils, the controller uses the dc–dc converter
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 to transfer energy out of the LiCs to load level the grid-side
Time(s) ac–dc converter bus. Otherwise, the converter is used to
recharge the capacitor bank. Figures 13 and 14 show the ben-
fig 15 The in-vehicle battery-only current (16 A peak ). efits of using this system.
Figure 13(a) shows the grid-side LiC voltage as the GEM
vehicle drives over the charging coils with the grid-side
LiC passive parallel system enabled. Figure 13(b) shows
the grid-side LiC current during this same event. Large pul-
sations would be present. However, here, the LiC supplies
the transient currents. Notice that the magnitude of the
LiC current is larger than the inverter current because the
LiC stack is at a lower voltage than the bus, and the dc–dc
converter matches the LiC output power to the required
inverter power.
(a) (b)
Figure 14 shows the grid supply and HF inverter cur-
rents when the grid-side active parallel system is enabled.
fig 16 The in-vehicle UC installation: (a) the ultracapacitor pack
during precharging operation and (b) the charged ultracapacitor
The large peak current pulse on the grid side has been elim-
pack installed in GEM and connected in passive parallel with bat- inated and replaced by a regulated and leveled current load
tery. (Photos courtesy of ORNL.) needed to recharge the LiC system. Moreover, most of the

20 IEEE Power Electronics Magazine z March 2014

HF harmonics reflected to the grid have also been removed. Figure 17 shows the ORNL wireless charging laboratory
The LiC system provides the transient energy to meet the with the test track, GEM EV, and laboratory instrumentation;
power requirement of the charging coils while isolating the the ESL equipment rack is in the foreground. During this test,
grid from high peak power and HF harmonic content. the Maxwell Technologies carbon UC is in passive paral-
Figure 15 shows the baseline in-vehicle battery cur- lel with the vehicle lead–acid battery and the ESL LiC is in
rent that is used as a comparator for active parallel with the grid-side power
the two cases to follow for carbon supply. The ESL equipment rack con-
UC and LiC smoothing. These tests tained a dedicated power supply along
are passive parallel with the GEM with the dc–dc converter to interface
The implementation
battery only. the LiC in active parallel and designed
of local energy storage to mate with the ORNL trackside elec-
Experimental Results was shown to be very tronics.
with Carbon UC in Vehicle The light poles shown in Figure 17
In the previous section, for an LiC in effective in reducing on the grid-side HF current sequenc-
active parallel with the output of a the ratio of peak-to- ing electronics box and on the GEM
grid-connected power supply, it was vehicle are provided for a visual indica-
demonstrated that the active parallel average current. tion of the grid power smoothing and
combination of LiC energy storage the vehicle battery pack charging cur-
and the grid supply resulted in very rent smoothing. Both visual indicators
uniform power draw from the grid— showed a dramatic reduction in power
the power pulsations are absorbed by the LiC as expected. pulsation when power capacitors are used.
This section reports on the use of Maxwell Technologies
UCs in passive parallel with the GEM lead–acid battery Vehicle Charging Current Smoothing Using Carbon UC
pack. The Maxwell Technologies UC module consists of a With the equipment configured as in Figure 16, for in-vehicle
single string of 30 # 650 F, 2.7 V/cell for a combined 21.7 F instrumentation and with a pair of power analyzers—one
at 81 V pack, shown in Figure 16, capable of 52 kJ (14.4 monitoring the grid side and the second installed in the
Wh) if discharged from maximum to half-rated voltage.
The carbon UC pack (30 S # 1 P # 650 F) shown in Figure
16 was precharged to match the GEM battery pack voltage 15
GEM Vehicle Battery Current and

prior to installation. This was necessary to avoid any cur- UC Current

Ultra-Capacitor Current (A)

rent surges between the UC pack, GEM battery, and WPT 10 GEM Battery Current
secondary-side filter capacitors during connection. The 5
UC pack was then installed in the GEM and connected to
0
the battery, as shown in Figure 16. In addition, a Yokagawa
power meter and isolation modules were installed in the -5
vehicle to record currents and voltages, at the UC and to -10
the battery pack.
-15

-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (s)

fig 18 The in-vehicle UC and battery currents (peak UC current

a13.4 A and peak battery current a2.6 A).

–– Table 1. A summary of the

current pulsation reduction.

Grid-Side WPT
Experimental Test Base Station In-Vehicle
No smoothing 53 A 16 A
Grid side only with LiC 10 A 16 A
Vehicle side with UC 10 A 2.6
fig 17 In-motion wireless charging is tested at ORNL using Vehicle side with LiC 10 A 2.6
electrochemical capacitor smoothing. (Cliff White is monitoring 84% for UC
Pulse reduction 81%
the grid-side equipment, and Steven Campbell is driving 84% for LiC
the test vehicle.) (Photo courtesy of ORNL.)

March 2014 z IEEE Power Electronics Magazine 21

vehicle—the current smoothing results are dramatic, as
shown in Figure 18.
Battery Current Smoothing with
LiC in Vehicle and LiC on Grid Side
The final experiment was to use the LiC on both the grid
side as active parallel and in the vehi-
cle as passive parallel. In this test, a
pair of ESL LiC 40-V modules are con-
nected to the power supply output via
a dc–dc converter, and a second
series-connected pair of 40-V LiC mod-
ules are placed in the GEM vehicle, as
shown schematically in Figure 2 and
experimentally in Figure 11. As with
the Maxwell Technologies UC module,
the LiC modules are also precharged
to match the GEM pack voltage. Fig-
15
GEM Battery Current
GEM Vehicle Battery Current and
10 Li-Ion Capacitor Current
Li-Ion Capacitor Current (A)
5 current during in-motion charging for the case of energized
0 and sequenced roadway embedded wireless charging coils.
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time(s)
fig 19 The in-vehicle LiC and battery currents (LiC current a 13.4 A
and battery current a 2.6 A).
RSU
fig 20 The dynamic WPT system installed in special highway lanes.
22 IEEE Power Electronics Magazine z March 2014
ure 19 shows an excerpt of the measured currents taken
during testing.
Power Pulsation Reduction
The implementation of local energy storage was shown to
be very effective in reducing the ratio of peak-to-average
current, resulting in lower power pul-
sations of the grid-supplied power and
vehicle battery pack charging power.
The LiC system Table 1 summarizes the previously
mentioned results. In Table 1, the
provides the transient experimental test results for grid-side
energy to meet the power supply current and vehicle trac-
tion drive electronics load current are
power requirement of
given as peak values for comparison.
the charging coils. The use of electrochemical capaci-
tors as high burst power sources and
sinks has been shown to dramatically
reduce power pulsations at both the
grid and vehicle battery pack. The implications are that grid
demand response resources will be substantially reduced
by the use of local high-power capacitor storage at roadside
WPT base stations and in vehicle to mitigate battery ripple
Figure 20 shows ORNL’s concept for dynamic WPT installed
in special charging lanes on highways. This concept was pre-
sented to the U.S. Department of Transportation research
and innovative technologies administration to assist in long-
term highway research [50].
The key attributes of this concept are that WPT modules
6 7 8 9 are controllable, modular, scalable, and replaceable, and the
energized track sections are powered by highway dc distri-
bution and multifailure-point survivable. The coil sequenc-
ing is synchronous, with the vehicle under charge regard-
less of speed or congestion. WPT
roadside units (RSUs) supply the dc
distribution from grid connections
Traffic
Lanes
at various intervals along the high-
WPT way corridor.
Lane
Median
Conclusions
RSU ibution
dc Distr This article focused on just one of the
Traffic
e many technical challenges posed by
W PT Lan Lanes
the dynamic charging of EVs—power
pulsations. Equally challenging, if not
more technically challenging, are
concerns over lateral alignment for
Side View lane keeping and optimum power
Cover Plate transfer coupling, low-latency private
Windings
Ferrite Pieces
and secure communications for vehi-
Top View dc Distribution cle to infrastructure, highway con-
and Power struction and maintenance, utility
Command
power distribution to WPT RSUs,
time of use and revenue structure,
and so on. Not listed among these
challenges are leakage fields, which for WPT are the magnetic,
B, and electric, E, fringe fields associated with HF magnetic
resonance power transfer. This issue is further complicated by
the fact that maximum B-fields are not necessarily colocated
with maximum E -fields [51]. ORNL researchers recognize the
issues associated with electromagnetic fields from cables car-
rying HF currents. This is why ORNL focused on energized
tracks of embedded roadway coils that are sequenced in syn-
chronism with vehicle passage. The active fields remain strictly
beneath a vehicle that is charging. To mitigate the power pulsa-
tions inherent in coupling power from a series of embedded
coils, the ORNL team, in collaboration with ESL researchers,
installed high-power capacitors at both the grid and in vehicle.
The result was a dramatic reduction of 84% in charging current
to the vehicle battery and 81% from the grid connection. Using
electrochemical capacitors, such as Maxwell Technologies car-
bon UCs and the ESL LiC unit, it was demonstrated in an
experiment that peak currents associated with power peaks
were reduced to their average value. Similar results have been
found by others in experimental work on capacitor–battery
combinations [52], [53]. The benefit of power capacitors in
energy storage systems is a dramatic reduction of ripple cur-
rent, which facilitates longer service life of the vehicle battery,
as validated by Argonne Laboratory researchers [54].
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the members of the ORNL
Power Electronics and Electric Machinery Group for their
contributions to WPT experimental fabrication, testing, and
data acquisition. The authors especially commend team
members P.T. Jones and Paul Chambon for their assistance
in vehicle systems aspects of this program.
This manuscript has been authored by UT-Battelle, LLC,
under Contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy.
About the Authors
John M. Miller (jmmiller35@aol.com), distinguished staff,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee, is currently a prin-
cipal engineer with JNJ Miller PLC, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
Omer C. Onar (onaroc@ornl.gov), Weinberg Fellow, R&D
staff, is with Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee.
Cliff White (whitecp@ornl.gov), R&D staff, is with Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee.
Steven Campbell (campbells@ornl.gov), R&D staff, is
with Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee.
Chester Coomer, R&D staff (retired), is with Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Tennessee.
Larry Seiber (seiberl@ornl.gov), R&D staff, is with Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee.
Raymond Sepe, Jr. (rsepe@electrostandards.com),
vice president for research and development, is with Elec-
tro Standards Laboratories, Cranston, Rhode Island.
Anton Steyerl (antons@lab.electrostandards.com),
research engineer, is with Electro Standards Laborato-
ries, Cranston, Rhode Island.
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