electromagnetic

induction. 0 I). induced

production
cutslnduction: inductionPRINCIPLES BASIC
designed
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4 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
(i)Laow of interaction: This law relates to the phenomenon of production of force. or torque ie
whencveracurrent carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic ficld, by the interaction of the magnef
ficlds produced by the current carrying conductor and the main field, force is exerted on the conductor ad
torque is developed (see fig. 2).
3. GENERATOR AND MOTOR ACTION
In generator action, an e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductors when they cut across the magneti
ficld. On closing the circuit, current flows through the armature conductors which produces anothe
field. By the interaction of this field and main field a force is exerted on the conductor which acts i
opposite dircction to that of rotation. It is this force against which the relative motion of conductors ha
tobe maintaincd by the mechanical power supplied by the prime-mover; thus the mechanical power i;
converted into electrical power.
In motor action, a current is supplied to the machine which flows through the armature conductors
The armature conductors produce a field which interacts with the main field. Thus, a force is exerted on
the conductors and rotation takes place (i.e. torque is developed). Once rotation occurs, an e.m.f. is
induced in the conductors due to relative motion. This e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the flow of
current. The flow of current has to be maintained against this e.m.f. by applying external voltage source
thus electrical power is converted into mechanical power.
Generator action Motor action

Y
E) R DC
Supply

1. In generating action, the rotation is due to 1. In motoring action, the rotation is due to
mechanical torque, therefore, T, and o are electromagnetic torque, therefore, Te and o
in the same direction.
are in the samedirection.
2. The frictional torque T,acts in opposite 2. The frictional torque
direction to rotation o. Tr acts in opposite
direction to rotation o.
3. Electromagnetic torque T, acts in
direction to mechanical torque T, so opposite3.
that o Tm
Mechanical torque T, acts in opposite
direction to electromagnetic torque T, so that
4 In generating action, and emf is induced in 4. In motoring action,
theconductors which circulates current in the current is impressed to
the armature against the induced emf (e),
ar1nature, therefore e and i both are in the same therefore current flows in
direction. to that of induced emf. opposite direction
5. In generator action, E V 5 In
In generating action, the torque angle 0 is6. In motor action, E<V
leading. motoring action, the torque angle 9 is
7 In generatin action, mechanical energy is7. Inlegging.
motoring action, electrical energy is
converted into electrical energy.

4. PRODUCTION OF SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING E.M.E.

When a conductor or coilcuts across the magnetic ficld an e.mf is induced in it by the nhenomenon
called electromagnetic induction. This can be achicved cither by rotating acoil in the stationary magnetic
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 5
field or by keeping the coilstationary and rotating the magnetic field. (The magnetic field can
by placing the field winding on the rotating part of the be rotated
nachine).
Qa.
N

(a
(b) (c)
(d)
Fig. 3
Forillustration see fig. 3 (a)and (b), two
positions ofa coil rotating
in a stationary magnetic field is shown. Whereas, in fig. 3 (c) and (d). e
Iwo positions of a rotating clectro-magnet in acoil placed A
armature is shown. At first instant, the e. m.f. induced inon the
stationary
coil is
!

zero since flux cut by the coil is zero. However, at second

e.m.f induced in the coil is maximum (say positive). The two instant, the 360

I, and , are marked on the wave diagram shown in fig. 3 (e).instants

revolutíon the induced e.m.f. completes one cycle and its wave Inshape one
(e)
is shown in fig. 3 (e).
5. RELATION BETWEEN
FREQUENCY, SPEED AND NUMBER OF POLES
In fig. 4, a machine is shown having P number CYCLE.
of poleson the rotor revolving at a speed at
When a conductor passes through a pair N,rp.m.
of poles
one cycle of e.m.f is induced in it.
P
:. No. of cycle made per revolution
2
N
No. of revolutions made per second = N, ()

60 ROTOR
.. No. of cycles made per second
=No. of cycles/revolution × No. of revolutions/s
P N, Fig. 4
2
PN^ cycles/s or Hz
60 120
6. CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Only in small synchronous machines the field systen is placed on
otOr, but in larger machines. the field winding is placed on the rotor andstator and armature winding on
armature
e stator. The rotating field and stationary armature system is winding is placed on
preferred over stationary field and rotating
armature system.
The immportant parts of asynchronous machine are given below:
1. Stator 2.Rotor 3. Miscellaneous
1.
Stator:The outer stationary part of the machine is called stator, it has the followingimportant parts :
) Stator frame : It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron
of the and it protects the inner parts
machiis nused
Cast iron e. It can be also made of any other strong material since it is not to carry the magnetic field.
only because of its high mechanical strength.
 phase forceWnien
then
winding periphery shoe
pole
and
ofprovides
laminated shoe shaft an accommodate obtainpower
14 aconstruction two
insertedmagnetic
required field.flowsgivenplaced speed (ii)
the () (i)types 2. (In) and
(d) (c) (b) are easy (a) metre winding are
through to generated and Spider: of piants
the SalientSalient Rotor: Stator Stator
Damper Field Pole path of accommodate insulated
and it isuniformly leastsheet keyed at and 200required
through wound the for length such as is rotors Core:The
rt-circuited aroundwinding reluctance core rp.m. suited The is
Winding:
the distributes to
outer Spider
th e synchronous pole pole placed.
winding e. naterial it rotating Fig. 5
fieldrings. on m.f. 1o and (seemagnetic (alternators frequency.
is a type typenamed from
Whenslip polethe large fo r
the or produce surface, isonly
path (see pole fig . made mediumrotor: rotor Enameled Slots the eachstator
winding,
: former
Exciting th e number aspart stator
at At 6). flux. metre. l generators.
core.
D.C. sinusoidal field for fig shoe of the :(ii) of are other. core
both the pole coupled In
(see the 6 cast and this the STATOR
CORE winding.
it winding over (b)]. It machines of Non-salient LAMINATEDcopper cut is
theouter current magnetic core
Pole : core is
It ir on The poles. s
Itmade
producesdirect fig. keyed low case. machine
MAGNETIC
FLUXMEAN
on
is with PATHOF VINDING
FIELD SHOE SHOE
POLE
POLELAMINATED
sides most 6 wave the and salient
to Sincespeeds the function
supply is(e)] made provide is
by : whole pole to water
these have projected used inner silicon of
periphery, andFicld form field the
rings the of t he pole pole called is is
machines largespeed and
turbines)
as
periphery to
type type winding provided steel
forming arepoles rotor.
holes number of
usually rotor.
rotor these material.
the have are From VNDING
FIELD
material. of an
damper are has employed provided the
diameterlarger machines of easy
the poles construction stator It
provided Fig. 7 is
winding. followingdiameter
on (a made
SYNCHRONOUS
pathMACHINES
-ROTOR of
(generators) as atthe
core
in e shown
thhydro-electric Fig. 6 tor from
which maclhines and rotor. point POLES
in the
important SPIDER which number
magrnetic
STATORSLOTS
STATOR CORE small in Salient of
copper ROTOR
SLOTS
fig is view, 3-phase
is quite
length. 5 of
parts: as and and pole there stamping i
bars large lines
l6.ow, dies or
a FoT0to typ: are . o
a
 a.. produced. delivercentrifugal structure. insulation armature tothe parts :formed and coilskeved rotorsgiven used SYNCHRONOUS forMACHINES
by
to generator of Þ. are 7.friction. miscellaneous
the SYSTEM the 3. the the (ii)
that SYNCHRONOUS
(2) THREE-PHASE MÁCHINES
inachines
At Only (i) (vi)
The () is
It (iv) (iii) Following
(ii)ADVANTAGES () (i) (ii) slip (i) current (b) are (a) as
following exciting have
frequency.
to current
ofFor all small The In The Bearings
The Miscellaneous
rings.
Brushes according Rotor Rotor
prime-mover high
Non-salient
Better The winding Shaft: placed. the
single-phase the employed the small stresses is the
weighteasier current size sizeprovided armature material is shaft.
core
the speeds.
generating
same are cooling modern are Shaft winding. D. C . passed
winding following flowing
reasons: a.c. : It Hence,
usually to of of on the : Brushes
supply toprovides At :
machines
at of are Bearings
is th e
size build for slip stationary winding used through tRotor
he r The pole
fothrough
machines. the developed. and
the alternators important made or
system rotor excitation, OF requirement
stations,
of three-phase and ringsarmature
it is are Part: Exciting outer corepartsthese thissteam type
generating for an
frame is is ROTATING of are givenmade the machine
employed properly depends easy is their easy machines
periphery is :turbines rotor: the
can sImall structure. mi ld The
three-phase (synchronous advantages more provided winding made rotor
and through Thus,
conductors steel.
construction to of winding:It path
be when to the (see In
machines. provided following
carbon working
material, stations. balance upon insulate complex to
slots of have (exciting)rotate this
in it Mechanical brushes. fig. in the silicon
household field slip is between
preferred
the of 8).such
synchronous is the rotating FIELD and magnetic is
are smaller as at case,
three-phase
machineshave The
high rings generators), than cut steel winding.
when system magnitude
much high high
is From
these are placed a a athere
speed the way generator, high
major of power few indiameter
applications the to voltage th e SYSTEM stampings.
which
flux. are
issmaller more field carbonshaftbrushes just that in speed
armatureprovided rotors place field is important
generators application high slip poles rotor Non-salient no
of system taken and exciting a
projected
winding winding. steel. current andsmall(3000
when size flow them to voltage over slots
are carry OVER or outer are Itlarger
is over is
on when of
on given number rp.m.).
single-phase
are of
kept rotor they
heavy stationary flows WINDING FIELD polepoles
current,
stationary when Therefore,
is stationary length.
invariably carry
rotating generated, STATIONARY to type
nearly sychronous stationary. and the to When
of but
th e current, it
astherefore, is machine the Non poles
construction the
1.5 machines. system.
friction
losses
suchlighter
field fieldstructure. placed body slip
employed itfield salient
these poles
times machines therefore, is Fig. 8 are
system therefore, on easysystem through to rings
it RINGS turbines
SLIPrequired are
reduce pole
and The is stationary to FIELD and is
because iseasy POLE tormed
suited
output is used. heavy place : shaft. then type
large high the tor are
as 7
to
a
8 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
(ii) Power can be transmitted and distributed more economically when it is in the form of three.
phase than when it is in the form of single-phase. Therefore, 3-phase synchronous generators are employed
for generation of electrical power.
(ii) In the industries, for power conversion, three-phase induction motors are employed invariably
since they are robust, more efficient, self starting, operate at high power factor and very cheap in cost,
Three-phase power is required for their operation, therefore, it is preferred to generate (3-phase
synchronous generators), transmit and distribute electricalpower adopting 3-phase system.
9. ARMATURE WINDING
In the large synchronous machines,stationary part is the armature. On the inner periphery of the
stator core, number of slots (mostly open parallel sided slots) are provided. In these slots armature
winding is placed. The various types of winding schemes can be adopted, a few of them are given below.
1.Single-phase and poly-phase windings : When only one windings is placed on the armature and
only one e.mf is obtained at the output, winding is called singie-phase winding.
When more than one windings are placed on the armature and e.m,fs. induced are more than one,
displaced from each other by some angle, the winding is called poly-phase winding. Mostly 3-phase
winding is provided on the armature.
2. Concentrated and distributed windings : When one slot per pole or slots equal to the number
of poles are employed. the windings thus obtained are called concentrated windings. Such windings
give maximum induced e.mfs. for given number of conductors but the wave form of induced e.m,f is
not exactly sinusoidal.
When number of slots per poles are more than one, the windings thus obtained are called distributed
windings. Such windings given slightly less than maximum induced e.m.f for a given number of
conductors but the wave form of induced e.m.f is more sinusoidal.
3. Single layer and double layer windings : When only one coil side is placed in a slot, the
winding is called single layer winding. However, when two coil sides are placed in one slot, one over the
other. the winding is called double layer winding.
4. Full pitched and short pitched windings : When the two coil sides of the same coil are 180
electrical degrees apart, the winding is called fullpitch winding. When the two sides of the same coil are
less than 180electrical degrees apart, the winding is called short pitch winding.
The e.m.f. induced in each coil is maximum with full pitch winding scheme is employed
e.m.f induced in the short pitch winding is less than that. However, short pitch winding is preferredwhere
over
full pitch winding because of the following reasons :
(i) It decreases the length at the end-connections and thus amount of
copper required is saved.
(ii) It reduces the slot reactance and thus improves the wave shape of the
2enerated e.mf. can be made to approximately sinusoidal more easily by properlygenerated e.n.f. i.e. the
chording the winding.
(iii) It reduces or eliminates distorting harmonics in the wave
form of generated e.m.f.
Theonly disadvantage of short pitch winding is
that afew more turns are used to obtain the same
voltage as it would be induced in full pitch winding. Z
5. Concentric (or spiral), Lap and Wave 123 N 4 5/6 7as| N
windings : When each group of coils under a pole
is arranged into a sort of concentric shape i.e. when
ihe current flow is tracedthrough one such properly
connected set of coils that the onductors secm to
forn a spiral around a portion of the core (see fig. 9)
the winding is called concentric or chain or spiral
winding. This type of winding scheme is preferred T,
Fig. 9
T
machines.
for large diameter, low speed synchronous
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

(a)
(b)
Fig. 10
In the alternators, the lap and wave windings give
the same e.m.f. as long às the other conditions are
the same. In case of lap winding. coils or coil sides
over lap the other consecutively and connections are
made. Whereas in wave winding, the coils are always
wave windings for six pole machines are shown in fig. 10.forward connected. The single-phase lap and
The connections of alap winding are simpler
to that of wave winding so that the lap winding is
almost exclusively used.
10. IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN
ARMATURE WINDING
Some of the important terms used in the armature winding are given
() Electrical angle : Whena conductor passes below:
through a pair of poles, one cycle of e.m.f. is induced
in it. Thus a pair of poles represents an angle of 360
There is a perfect relation between electrical and
electrical degrees.
mechanical angle.
Electrical angle = Mechanical angle x Pair of poles.
(i) Pole pitch : Distance between two neutral axis (or similar
poles pitch. The pole pitch can be expressed as number of slots per poles orpoints) adjacent poles is called
of
IfS is the number of slots on the whole periphery of electrical degrees (i.e. 180° elect.).
Pole pitch= No. of slots per pole = SIP.
armature and P is the number of poles, Then,
(ii)Coil : Two conductors placed in the two slots
less than pole pitch (in short pitch winding), connected displaced by pole pitch (in full pitch winding) or
at one side by the end conuections form a single
turn coil as shown in fig. 11 (a). When number of turns are
IS placed in the slot. it is called amulti-turn coil as
connected in series and each side (coil side)
shown in fig. 11 (b) and (c). The multi-turn coil is
shown in fig. 11 (d) by asingle line diagram.
END CONNECTIONS
COTTON TAPE

CONDUCTOR
(a) (b) (C)
M(d)
Fig. 11
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
10
acoil iscalled coilspan. It is
(iv) Coil pitch or coil span : The distance between twoactive sides of
expressed in terms of number of slots or electrical degrees.
points) of two consecutive slots Or
(v) Slot pitch: The distance between centre points (or similar
teeth is caled slot pitch. It is expressed in electrical degrees.
FULL PITCHED COIL
SHORT PITCHED COIL
-COIL SPAN

PHASE SPREAD

POLE PITCH-+ -POLE PITCH4 POLE PITCH

2 3 4 5 67 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
le-sLÖTPITCH

t-NEUTRAL AXIS
Fig. 12
(v) Phasespread : The angle or space of pole face over which coil sides of the same phase are
spread is called phase spread. In a distributed winding, the conductors of one phase under one pole are
spread in number of slots so that each phase has equal distribution. In a three phase winding :
180
Phase spread = = 60 electrical degrees
3
Phase spread =No. of slots/pole/phase
11. COIL SPAN FACTOR
In a full pitch winding the coil spanor coil pitch is always equal to the pole pitch which is equal to
180 electrical degrees. When the coil span is less than 180 electrical degrees, the winding is called shor
pitched or fractional pitechor chorded winding as shown in fig. 13.
FULL PITCH WINDING
SHORT PITCH
WINDING
POLE
-POLE PITCH

B2
A B

Fig. 13 Fig. 14
Let 'e' be the induced e.mf in each of the two sides of the same coil. For a full pitch winding the
emt induced in two sides ofthecoil i.e. 04 and AB are 180 electrical degrees apart as shown in fig. 14
However. when the winding is short pitched by an angle ßelectrical degrees, the e.m.f induced in the
fwosides of the coil are 0A and AC i.e.(l80 -B) electrical degrees apart of shown in fig. 14.
For a full pitch winding,
Total induced e.m.f. in the coil = 04 + AB -ete=2e