J O U R N A L OF G E O P H Y S I C A L R E S E A R C H . VOL. 96, MO.

D7, PAGES 13,179-13,188, J U L Y 20, 1991

ATM05FHERIC WATER BALANCE I N THE AMAZON BASIN:

AN ISOTOPIC EVAPOTRANSPIRATION MODEL

J . R. Gat

I s o t o p e D e p a r t m e n t , Weizmann I n s t i t u t e of Science, Rehovot

E. Matsui

Comissão N a c i o n a l de E n e r g i a N u c l e a r and C e n t r o de E n e r g i a
N u c l e a r na A g r i c u l t u r a , U n i v e r s i d a d e de Sao P a u l o , P i r a c i c a b a , B r a s i l

Abstract. An i n c r e a s e o f 3 /oo i n the "d" Eollowing the e a r l y surveys, a d d i t i o n a l i s o t o p e

value of the i s o t o p i c composition of p r e c i p i t a t i o n data have become available from the mon.thly-
over the Amazon Basin suggests that an averaged rainwater collection networks of the
isotopically fractionated evapotranspiration flux I n t e r n a t i o n a l A t o m i c E n e r g y Agency ( I A E A ) and t h e
c o n t r i b u t e s t o the atmospheric water balance over C e n t r o de E n e r g i a N u c l e a r na A g r i c u l t u r a (CENA).
the region. A steady state evapotranspiration The stations a t Bel?m, P o r t o Velho, Santarém,
m o d e l f o r t h e Amazon B a s i n was d e v e l o p e d , and i t Manaus, and Uapes a r e s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n
is shown t h a t t h e o b s e r v e d i n c r e a s e i n t h e "d" p r o p e r , b u t a d j o i n i n g s i t e s a t B r a s i l i a , Cuiabá,
v a l u e corresponds t o a s i t u a t i o n where 20-40% o f F o r t a l e z a , C a y e n n e , N a t a l , S a l v a d o r , and I z o b a m b a
the t o t a l e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n f l u x i s accompanied a r e a l s o o f some r e l e v a n c e . Location of these
by an isotopic fractionation, such as by stations are shown in Figure 1. The
e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m an o p e n w a t e r s u r f a c e . The site i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of these data w i t h i n the framework
o f t h i s f r a c t i o n a t i o n , w h e t h e r by e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m of t h e a t m o s p h e r i c i s o t o p e models p r o v i d e s c l u e s
the f l o o d p l a i n s , canopy i n t e r c e p t i . o n or l a k e s , which enable us to propose a regional water
c a n n o t be r e s o l v e d w i t h t h e p r e s e n t l y available balance model.
data set.

Review o f t h e I s o t o p i c C o m p o s i t i o n
Introduction in P r e c i p i t a t i o n From t h e Amazon B a s i n

The Amazon Basin is the world's largest Table 1 summarizes t h e i s o t o p i c d a t a o f m o n t h l y

continental evaporative basin, whose very precipitation samples as p r o v i d e d by the IAEA
e x i s t e n c e as a t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t d e p e n d s on n e t w o r k [ I A E A , 1 9 8 1 ] and u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a f r o m t h e
abundant rainfall. Regional water balance CENA I s o t o p e Laboratory. To c h a r a c t e r i z e the
e s t i m a t e s [ M o l i o n , 1 9 7 8 a ; V i l l a Nova e t a l . , 1 9 7 6 ] 18
i n d i c a t e d t h a t the reevaporation from w i t h i n the s a m p l e s , we c o n s i d e r t h e v a l u e s o f <5 O ( t o be
basin plays an important role in i t s water 2
balance. The first isotope survey of n o t e d as r1._) , ò H ( t o be n o t e d as S Q ) , and the
p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t h e Amazon b a s i n by S a l a t i . e t a l . " d e u t e r i u m e x c e s s " p a r a m e t e r d e r i v e d f r o m t h e m as
[1979] conflrmed previous suggestions f Friedman, follows: d=(5j-|—8V>. g. This latter parameter is
1977] tliat an important part of the basin s1
r e l a t e d t o the o r i g i n of the atmospheric moisture
p r e c i p i t a t i o n consisti of recycled moisture. That [Gat, 1981]. We c o n s i d e r s e a s o n a l a v e r a g e s o f t h e
s t u d y was b a s e d on a m o n t h l y r a i n a n d r i v e r w a t e r monthly data points and their varie.bility
collection program d u r i n g j u s t 1 year, namely throughout the years o f measurements, i n most
1972-1973, a t about 15 s t a t i o n s throughout the c a s e s a b o u t 10 y e a r s up t o 1980. Mean v a l u e s f o r
region. A marked s e a s o n a l i t y i n b o t h t h e w a t e r the rainy season ( H a r c h - M a y ) and drier winter
b a l a n c e e s t i m a t e s and t h e i s o t o p i c d a t a was n o t e d , s e a s o n ( J u n e - O c t o b e r ) a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 2. The
as well as an isotopic g r a d i e n t between the d a t a f r o m t h e c o a s t a l s t a t i o n s a r e a l s o shown i n
n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n p a r t s o f t h e b a s i n . F i g u r e s 2-3 and an e a s t t o w e s t t r a n s e c t across
Any large scale deforestation w i l l obviously t h e b a s i n i n F i g u r e s 4-5.
change t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n f l u x . I t i s thus t o N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g an a p p r e c i a b l e s c a t t e r i n t h e
be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e a n t h r o p o g e n i c c h a n g e s i n t h e m o n t h l y d a t a , some s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s a r e n o t e d : ( 1 )
basin w i l l a f f e c t the atmospheric moisture balance e x c e p t f o r t h e d a t a f r o m Belém, C a y e n n e , a n d N a t a l
and precipitation throughout the region. To ( w h i c h d e s c r i b e a l o w - s l o p e l i n e i n í)^ v e r s u s S^^
assess these impending changes, i t i s necessary t o
space), a l i data s e t s are r a t h e r w e l l aligned
have a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e components o f
along l i n e s w i t h slopes of close to the c l a s s i c a l
the water balance. M o n i t o r i n g changes i n the
v a l u e o f 8 o f t h e m e t e o r i c w a t e r l i n e s . ( 2 ) On t h e
s t a b l e i s o t o p e c o m p o s i t i o n i n t i m e and s p a c e as a
whole, the data from d i f f e r e n t c o a s t a l stations
measure o f t h e c h a n g i n g water budget will be
are rather similar, posslbly with a slight
u s e f u l , since the stable isotope composition of
the a t m o s p h e r i c m o i s t u r e and o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s latitudinal gradient. Average values d u r i n g the
i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e o r i g i n o f t h e w a t e r and winter months (June-October) are about
i t s f a t e i n the atmosphere. < 5 = - 1.5°/oo, w i t h a " d " v a l u e o f 7.3, 7.2,
1 8 10.4,
1 1 . 2 , and 1 0 . 3 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r C a y e n n e , Belém,
Copyright 1991 by the American Geophysical Union. Fortaleza, Natal, and Salvador. There is a
relative large scatter i n the parameter <r(d) =
P a p e r number 9 1 J D 0 0 0 5 4 . ± 7 ° / o o and a t r e n d o f i n c r e a s e i n t h e mean " d "
0148-0227/91 91JD-0005405.00 v a l u e i s n o t e d s o u t h w a r d f r o m t h e n o r t h . ( 3 ) The

13,179
.180 Gat and M a t s u i : An I s o t o p i c E-T Model o f t h e Amazon B a s i n

Fig. 1. L o c a t i o n map o f r a i n sampling stations.

TABLE 1 . P r e c i p i t a t i o n D a t a From t h e IAEA N e t w o r k

A n n u a l Means Regression Line f o r A l i Monthly Data

(Amount Weighted) , <5p = a à^gO -1- b (°/oo)
°/oo

"d" a b r 2
«18 *t
Belém - 2 41 -13 6 5 7 6 17±0 30 3 85 d 1 0 0 80
Cayenne - 2 07 - 9 9 6 7 5 27±0 34 2 95 ± 0 85 0 80
Fortaleza - 2 92 -15 0 8 4 7 45±0 3 8 1 ±0 85 0 87
Natal - 2 16 - 7 9 9 4 (5 83 ± 0 6 6 1 ±1 2 0 5)
Salvador - 1 74 - 3 5 10 4 8 31±0 4 10 85 dr 0 8 0 79
Manaus - 5 68 -31 6 13 8 8 11 ± 0 16 13 5 ±0 8 0 97
Cuiabá - 5 26 -33 6 8 5 7 6 ±0 1 8 5 dr 0 g 0 87
Izobamba -10 45 -71 4 12 2 8 0 ±0 2 11 65 ± 2 4 0 97
Brasilia - 4 75 -27 9 10 1 7 16±0 2 8 d: 1 0 0 95

Based on m o n t h l y d a t a as r e p o r t e d b y IAEA.

Table 2. S e a s o n a l A v e r a g e s o f I s o t o p i c D a t a From M o n t h l y Precipitation

S a m p l e s ( I A E A N e t w o r k a n d CENA D a t a )

Rainy season (March-May) Winter (June-Oct.)

Station 5 1 8( /oo)
6 " d " (°/oo) 5, a (°/oo) " d " (°/oo)

Belém - 3 90 9 3 - 0 18 7 2
Cayenne - 2 26 10 9 - 1 42 7 3
Fortaleza - 3 13 8 3 - 1 51 10 4
Natal - 2 76 10 6 - 0 96 10 9
Salvador - 1 45 10 8 - 1 07 10 5
Santarém 3 - 6 10 11 45 - 1 82 9 9
Manaus - 7 50 12 6 - 2 67 13 5
Cuiabá - 5 45 10 6 + 0 52 10 2
Izobamba' 3 -11 7 14 5 -11 16 10 5
Brasilia - 4 2 10 55 - 1 28 11 25 c

Two-year a v e r a g e o n l y .
Four y e a r average.
c I n c l u d e s d a t a from v e r y d r y months.
 Gat a n d M a t s u i : An I s o t o p i c E-T Model o f t h e Amazon Basin 13,181

[
S 1 8 0(%o) y

l i i i l n *xyv y \
I I I i l/ I / ' T * • *> 1 J *

yyy - 0

/
/ * '
/* o • --50 S
y
x Cayenne / • Belém
o Natal
JUNE-OCTOBER °x Cayenne
Fortaleza
Fig. 2. I s o t o p i c data o f monthly precipitation MARCH-MAY
s a m p l e s f r o m c o a s t a l s t a t i o n s o f t h e IAEA n e t w o r k :
June - O c t o b e r . Fig. 3. I s o t o p i c data o f monthly precipitation
samples from c o a s t a l s t a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e r a i n y
s e a s o n o f M a r c h - May.

c o a s t a l s t a t i o n d a t a from t h e r a i n y season (March-

May) are lower i n general, averaging around
í =-3°/oo
1 8 with d ~10°/oo. Some anomalously
degree o f r a i n o u t . T h i s was e x p l a i n e d ar, t h e
d e p l e t e d i s o t o p i c v a l u e s f r o m Belém s t a n d o u t ; result of the recycling o f t h e r a i n w a t e r by
t h e s e were n o t e d b e f o r e [ S a l a t i e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ] and evapotranspiration. The l o n g e r - p e r i o d d a t a s e t
t e n t a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e presence of the now a v a i l a b l e c o n f i r m s t h e s e f i n d i n g s as f a r a s
Intertropical C o n v e r g e n c e Zone ( I T C Z ) over t h e the changes i n t h e ô values are concerned.
mouth o f t h e Amazon river at that time. At However, due t o t h e c o n s t a n c y o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g
Cayenne, s i m i l a r l o w v a l u e s o c c u r later i nthe t e m p e r a t u r e o f 25"-27"C, as w e l l as t h e f a c t t h a t
y e a r d u r i n g J u n e - A u g u s t , a t w h i c h t i m e t h e ITCZ r e c y c l i n g o c c u r s p r i m a r i l y by a t r a n s p i r a t i o n f l u x
is r e t r e a t i n g northward. (which i s nonfractionating with respect to
I n t h e t r a n s e c t a c r o s s t h e b a s i n f r o m Belém t o i s o t o p i c w a t e r m o l e c u l e s ) , one w o u l d h a v e e x p e c t e d
Santarém a n d Manaus, we n o t e a shift t o more d a t a t h r o u g h o u t t h e b a s i n t o be i n v a r i a n t with
negative S values, with t h e d a t a more tightly respect t o t h e value o f t h e "d" parameter. The
c o n s t r a i n e d a l o n g s l o p e - 8 l i n e s , i . e . , a marked marked increase i n the "d" value which
r e d u c t i o n i n t h e s c a t t e r o f t h e "d" parameter (as characterizes the basin i s more t y p i c a l of a
shown b y t h e 1-a envelope o f these data p o i n t s , system where t h e added atmospheric moisture
i n t h e i n s e t o f F i g u r e 4) . The m o s t p r o m i n e n t originates from e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m an open water
f e a t u r e , however, i s t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e v a l u e o f b o d y b u t a l s o seems t o b e a f e a t u r e o f t r o p i c a l
the "d" parameter f r o m c l o s e t o 7.5°/oo as a n r a i n f o r e s t r e g i o n s g e n e r a l l y , as f i r s t o b s e r v e d i n
a v e r a g e v a l u e n e a r t h e c o a s t , t o a b o u t ll°/oo a t A f r i c a n d a t a by Dansgaard [ 1 9 6 4 ] .
Santarém, a n d c l o s e t o 13°/oo a t Manaus. From t h e
more l i m i t e d data set f o r stations Uapes ( S a o
Modeling t h e I s o t o p i c Composition
G a b r i e l ) , P o r t o V e l h o , a n d Cuiabá a s w e l l as f o r
of Atmospheric M o i s t u r e i n t h e Presence
B r a s i l i a ( w h i c h i s s i t u a t e d downwind o f t h e b a s i n )
of an E v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n F l u x
[IAEA, 1979, 1983, 1 9 8 6 ] , s i m i l a r h i g h " d " v a l u e s
are encountered. R e l a t i v e l y very high values o f
The b a s i c b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n o f t h e a t m o s p h e r i c
up t o d=16°/oo a r e r e c o r d e d a t Cuiabá a n d P o r t o
m o i s t u r e ( N ) i n a n a i r mass c a n be w r i t t e n a s :
Velho d u r i n g some m o n t h s , b u t t h i s effect i s
somewhat masked i n t h e a v e r a g e by t h e large dN/dt. = -P + ET (1)
s c a t t e r o f data a t these two s t a t i o n s .
where P is the water loss by rainout
One generally expects a reduction i n the
( p r e c i p i t a t i o n ) a n d ET s t a n d s f o r t h e r e t u r n f l u x
s c a t t e r o f t h e "d" parameter when m a r i n e a i r ,
by evapotranspiration during the period
where "d" values are quite varied as a rule
considered.
[Dansgaard, 1964], moves inland, mixes, and
The c o r r e s p o n d i n g . i s o t o p e b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n i s
homogenizes. This e f f e c t i s indeed noted i n t h e
obviously
d a t a f r o m t h e Amazon B a s i n . F u r t h e r , as t h e a i r
d (N • * ) / d t
a - -P <5 + ET (2)
masses p r e c i p i t a t e p a r t o f t h e i r m o i s t u r e , one
would expect a d e p l e t i o n o f t h e heavy i s o t o p e
c o n t e n t , f o l l o w i n g a R a y l e i g h t y p e l a w . I t was with <5 , fi ,
a and representing the isotopic
observed i n t h e p r e v i o u s study by S a l a t i e t a l .
[1979] t h a t t h e i s o t o p i c d e p l e t i o n i n t h e basin composition (either S^^ o r ô^) o f t h e a i r mass, o f
f a l i s s h o r t o f w h a t i s t o be e x p e c t e d b a s e d o n t h e the precipitation and o f t h e evapotranspiration
13,182 Gat and M a t s u i : An I s o t o p i c E-T Model o f t h e Amazon Basin

S l 8 0(%o)

F i g . 4. I s o t o p i c data o f monthly p r e c i p i t a t i o n
s a m p l e s f r o m a t r a n s e c t a c r o s s t h e Amazon B a s i n ,
June - O c t o b e r . I n s e t shows t h e l—a e n v e l o p e f o r
these data.

S 0(%o)
1 8

• Belém
° Santarém
x Manaus
•Jzobamba
— -100
MARCH-MAY

F i g . 5. I s o t o p i c d a t a of m o n t h l y p r e c i p i t a t i o n
samples on a t r a n s e c t across t h e Amazon Basin:
M a r c h - May.

f l u x , r e s p e c t i v e l y , which are expressed i n p e r m i l l Introducing the runoff ratio of the basin, y =

u n i t s by c o n v e n t i o n . The c o n c e p t u a l scheme i s R/P, w h e r e R = P-ET i s t h e r i v e r r u n o f f f r o m t h e
shown i n F i g u r e 6 a . b a s i n so t h a t ( 1 - y ) = ET/P, t h e n g i v e s
D i v i d i n g ( 2 ) by ( 1 ) l e a d s t o a R a y l e i g h - t y p e
f o r m u l a t i o n [ G a t , 1981], the i n t e g r a t i o n o f which d,) («5 -6 )
will describe the evolution o f the isotopic P « (3b)
dlogN
c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e a i r masses c o n c e r n e d .

ãS ET • S For t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e Amazon B a s i n , M a t s u i e t
ET
«5 = al. [1983] found that there exists a local
dlogN ET P a
eguilibrium between the p r e c i p i t a t i o n and t h e
ET • (<5 - -5.) P (<5
ET atmospheric moisture at the prevailing ambient
-2- (3a)
ET temperature, so that 6 á + K* where <•* i s
 Gat a n d M a t s u i : An I s o t o p i c E-T M o d e l o f t h e Amazon Basin 13,183

COASTAL REGION INNER BASIN

&o,1 og f
Po F1 = F -P
V

F i g . 6. ( a ) C o n c e p t u a l scheme f o r t h e a t m o s p h e r i c
w a t e r b a l a n c e i n t h e Amazon B a s i n a n d i t s i s o t o p i c
evolution and (b) the expected isotopic
composition o f t h e atmospheric waters on a
s c h e m a t i c <5 v e r s u s i 5
D diagram.
1 8 The c o e f f i c i e n t s

S ,
& <5p r e f e r t o the isotopic composition of the
atmospheric vapor and the precipitation,
respectively (subscript o denotes the i n i t i a l
composition and i t h e value i n c l u d i n g t h e r e c y c l e d
moisture), i s t h e isotopic composition o f t h e
"lake" from which e v a p o r a t i o n o c c u r s , a n d 6^ - t h e
v a l u e o f t h e e v a p o r a t i o n f l u x f o r t h e range o f
humidities o f 0 . 6 < h < 0 . 8 5 . F - signifies the
m o i s t u r e f l u x and P t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
13,184 Gat and Matsui: An I s o t o p i c : E-T Model o f t h e Amazon Basin

defined as £*=(«*—1)10 with «* the umt versus á^ space i s l e s s t h a n that of the meteoric
fractionation factor i n the l i q u i d - v a p o r phase
water lines, namely,
transition. On the assumption o f such a local
i s o t o p i c e q u i l i b r i u m , (3a) then s i m p l i f i e s f u r t h e r
D
to
{f> -f> ) 1 n
(«* +c ) 18
(S -S +c*)
] 8 k 8
d<5 (1-y) • ET p ss p 18
a (3c)
"dlogN As shown i n F i g u r e 6 b , such a l a k e ' s isotopic
composition l i e s t o the r i g h t o f the a p p r o p r i a t e
This equation will revert to the classical
meteoric water line (MWL), along a so-called
ãô.
e v a p o r a t i o n l i n e (E l i n e ) .
Rayleigh law of under two extreme
One can now introduce the value of ò ss of (4)
s i t u a t i o n s : n a m e l y , when y = l ( n o ET) o r w h e n e v e r
as the i.nput term iu the Craig and Gordon
the return flux (ET) is not fractionated
i s o t o p i c a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n , so [1965] f o r m u l a t i o n f o r 6^:
that S — - — S . I t i s t o be n o t e d , h o w e v e r , that
ri, 1 p
S.í -h<5 a
- ( l - z j E M f l - h ) ^
under the l a t t e r circumstance the f r a c t i o n f i n 6.
the integrated Rayleigh formulation, (1-h) a (1-zh)
^ =^ -l>'-*logf m e a s u r e s t h e n e t w a t e r c o n t e n t i n z(l-h)
a a
(C k + £*) (6)
the a i r m a s s , i . e . , t h e amount c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e p (1-zh)
recycled moisture.
The increase i n the value of the "deuterium- In <i —rS^g
D space the point will obviously be
excess" parameter throughout the region bears l o c a t e d a b o v e t h e MWL, as shown i n F i g u r e 6 b , so
evidence t o the f a c t t h a t i s o t o p i c fractionation
t h a t the admixture of t h i s evaporation f l u x into
a c c o m p a n i e s p a r t o f t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n f l u x as
the a m b i e n t a i r r e s u l t s i n an increase i n the
i f f r o m an p p e n w a t e r s u r f a c e , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e
v a l u e o f "d" o f t h e a t m o s p h e r i c moisture, thus
t r a n s p i r a t i o n f l u x (T) which i s expected n o t t o
e x p l a i n i n g the observed increase i n t h i s parameter
i n v o l v e any i s o t o p i c f r a c t i o n a t i o n . One objective
o v e r an e v a p o r a t i v e b a s i n .
o f t h e m o d e l t o be p r e s e n t e d w i l l be t h e e s t i m a t e
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r ô^., one can
o f t h e r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e t w o f l u x e s , E and
T. formulate the i s o t o p i c balance i n the atmospheric
The Amazon m o d e l t h u s s h o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e some m o i s t u r e under t h e c o n d i t i o n s where t h e f r a c t i o n
open w a t e r from w h i c h e v a p o r a t i o n o c c u r s . Since (1-y) of the p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s reintroduced into
we c o n s i d e r l o n g e r - t e r m a v e r a g e s , we u s e d as m o s t the a t m o s p h e r e by e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m an o p e n w a t e r
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r the e v a p o r a t i o n element t h e model body a t s t e a d y s t a t e , i . e . , u n d e r t h e assumption
of a through-flow lake at hydrological steady t h a t the whole basin acts l i k e a l a k e . In this
s t a t e , f o r w h i c h t h e i s o t o p i c f o r m u l a t i o n s have c a s e t h e l a k e ' s h y d r o l o g i c p a r a m e t e r z as d e f i n e d
been given [e.g., Gat and Gonfiantini, 1981, above i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e p a r a m e t e r y o f ( 3 a ) and
chapt. 9 ] . I n such a system i n which i n f l o w i s (3b), so t h a t c o m b i n i n g ( 3 b ) and (6) y i e l d s the
balanced by evaporation and runoff following Rayleigh-type equation:
(Inflow=evaporation+outflow) the isotopic dá
c o m p o s i t i o n i s f o u n d t o be e n r i c h e d i n t h e h e a v y dlogN
isotopic s p e c i e s , t h e more so t h e smaller the
v a l u e o f t h e r a t i o Z: z=(outflow)/(inflow). [(l-h)+ (l-y)] • E*+(l-y)(l-h)C k

(7)
Using the accepted nomenclature where h s t a n d s fí-ylõ
for the normalized ambient h u m i d i t y and f; f o r t h e Integration of (7) will then describe the
overall isotopic fractionation factor, so that actual isotopic change i n the v a p o u r ahd the
£=£*+( l - h ) C . ,, tune
he term (\±—n/\_^
l-h)C, being the p r e c i p i t a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n o f f , w h e r e f i s t h e
contribution of the noneguilibrium diffusion fraction of the remaining atmospheric vapor:
processes near the liquid-air interface as <5 =<5 -fv l o q f and 6 =S +y l o g f . F o r t h e c a s e o f
a a,o p
3 p, o f 3

reviewed by Gat [1981], then the steady state y = 1 , i . e . , when e v a p o r a t i o n i s n e g l i g i b l e , t h i s

i s o t o p i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e open w a t e r body ( l a k e )
evidently reverts to the classical Rayleigh model
from which evaporation occurs i s
w i t h y=£* .
Figure 7 shows the changing <5 values with
S
[-; 1 i i = a .
I
lf?
+ +

a h (1-8) *0
i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e from the coast f o r the whole
[1 +
h
• ] (4) range o f r u n o f f regimes from y = 0 t o y = 1, asa
(1-z) function of F which i s the uncorrected
r rainout
f r a c t i o n d e f i n e d as F = ( N o - P ) / N o , w h e r e No i s t h e
r

Putting ^ i = ^ p a n d again assuming isotopic i n i t i a l w a t e r a m o u n t i n t h e a i r mass and P- the

i n t e g r a t e d amount o f r a i n ; f (the net remanent
e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n l o c a l v a p o r and p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
a t m o s p h e r i c m o i s t u r e ) i s o b v i o u s l y t h e n g i v e n by
as was j u s t i f i e d f o r t h e Amazon r e g i o n [ M a t s u i e t
al., 1983], gives a simplified form of ( 4 ) , f = l-y.(l-F ). I n Figure 8 these values are
namely, shown i n áp v e r s u s ó-^^ s p a c e f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f

^ss ~ ^p = <l-*)(l-h)(6*+C )/(l-8 k • h) (5) F = 0.5, taking the r e c y c l e d ET flux into

account. T h i s more o r l e s s c o r r e s p o n d s t o the
A p p l y i n g t h e s e e q u a t i o n s t o t h e two isotopic s i t u a t i o n i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e b a s i n a t Manaus.
species deuterium and oxygen-18, i t i s e v i d e n t L e t us now i n t r o d u c e t h i s " e v a p o r a t i o n e l e m e n t "
that the slope of the evaporation line i n <5 n
into a more g e n e r a l "transpiration + evaporation"
 Gat and M a t s u i : An I s o t o p i c E-T M o d e l o f t h e Amazon Basin 13,185

L A K E MODEL

y=1-x y=z

Series Model xFp

y y
y=(1-t-x) z = (1-t) ( y + x )
Fig. 7 . The change in ^ „ of the atmospheric
v a p o r as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e r a i n o u t f r a c t i o n (F )
f o r d i f f e r e n t values of y ( t h erunoff r a t i o i n the
basin) . Reverse Series Model

Parai lei Flux Model

SD(%c

F i g . 9. Schemes o f d i f f e r e n t e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n
— 50 models. F - the r a i n f l u x ; z - the lake runoff
f r a c t i o n , i . e . , the f r a c t i o n of inflow t o the lake
which r u n s o f f as s u r f ace flow; y - the t o t a l
runoff fraction of the basin. x - the f r a c t i o n of
Fig. 8. of of the precipitation on the basin which is
The values ^ J . „^ V ci.=>u= r e e v a p o r a t e d from a l a k e , and t - t h e f r a c t i o n o f
p r e c i p i t a t i o n r e c y c l e d by t r a n s p i r a t i o n .
p r e c i p i t a t i o n s a m p l e s w i t h i n an ET b a s i n , as a
f u n c t i o n o f t h e r u n o f f r a t i o ( y ) . The d a t a shown
are for a position midway i n t h e b a s i n where
F =0.5. The s l o p e 8 line corresponds to the precedes t h e l a k e , w i t h t h e opposite t r u e i n t h e
situation where the return flux is by second model. I n model C t h e e v a p o r a t i o n and
transpiration only; the point f o r y = l , i . e . , t r a n s p i r a t i o n systems a c t i n p a r a l l e l w i t h y b e i n g
without feedback to the atmosphere, would the combined r u n o f f from b o t h systems.
correspond t o the condition of the Rayleigh The m o d e l a s s u m p t i o n s f o r c a s e A a r e t h e n as
e q u a t i o n ; t h e outèr l a k e e n v e l o p e s r e f e r to a follows: t o t a l r u n o f f = y = ( 1 - x - t ) , the lake
s y s t e m where e v a p o r a t i o n o c c u r s f r o m an open w a t e r . (1-x-t) = y y
runoff factor The
body, a t h u m i d i t i e s o f h=0.5 ( s t i p p l e d l i n e ) and (1-t) (1-t) (x+y)
h=0.75 ( f u l l line), respectively. Dashed lines
show t h e v a l u e s f o r m i x e d ET s y s t e m s as shown i n R a y l e i g h - t y p e e q u a t i o n f o r t h i s model i s g i v e n by
d e t a i l i n F i g u r e 10.
ád [ x + ( 1 - h ) ( x + y ) ]£*+x ( 1 - h ) C.
model. We w i l l assume t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n t o f t h e (7a)
dlogN xfy(l-h)
t o t a l r a i n f a l l i s r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e atmosphere
u n f r a c t i o n a t e d by t r a n s p i r a t i o n and t h e f r a c t i o n x
I n model B t h e i s o t o p i c composition of the
by e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m a n o p e n s u r f a c e . As b e f o r e , y
t r a n s p i r a t i o n f l u x i s t h a t o f r u n o f f from the lake
i s t h e t o t a l r u n o f f f r o m t h e b a s i n so t h a t b y
< 5 = c 5 . As b e f o r e y = ( l - x - t ) a n d z ~ ( 1 - x ) .
t gs The
m a t e r i a l balance: y = (1-t-x).
A n u m b e r o f c o m b i n a t i o n s c a n be c o n s i d e r e d as appropriate Rayleigh-type law i s then
schematized i n F i g u r e 9. I n models A and B t h e
transpiration and evaporation elements are d<5 (l--h+x)c*+x(l-h)C h

a (7B)
arranged i n s e r i e s ; i n model A t h e t r a n s p i r a t i o n dlogN í "h • h x
13,186 Gat and M a t s u i : An I s o t o p i c E-T M o d e l o f t h e Amazon Basin

M o d e l C i n c o r p o r a t e s an a d d i t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r p i s m o d e l d e p e n d e n t t o some e x t e n t a n d f i x e d b y t h e
which describes the partitioning of the r e l a t i v e weight o f the evaporation i n the t o t a l
p r e c i p i t a t i o n between t h e t r a n s p i r a t i o n and t h e evapotranspiration flux. E v i d e n t l y , t h e maximum
l a k e t e r r a i n ( p i s d e f i n e d as t h e f r a c t i o n o f t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e value o f "d" i s g i v e n by t h e l a k e
t o t a l r a i n w h i c h f a l i s o n t h e open w a t e r s u r f a c e ) . m o d e l , and t h i s i n c r e a s e i n "d" i s a f u n c t i o n
We t h e n h a v e z = ( p - x ) / p a n d y = ( 1 - t - x ) . Note p r i m a r i l y o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g h u m i d i t y (h).
t h a t m a t e r i a l balance considerations r e q u i r e t h a t
x < p a n d t < ( l - p ) . The R a y l e i g h - t y p e law f o r t h i s D i s c u s s i o n - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e I s o t o p i c Data
s y s t e m c a n t h e n be w r i t t e n as f r o m t h e Amazon B a s i n w i t h i n t h e F r a m e w o r k o f t h e
ET M o d e l
dá

dlogN The i n c r e a s e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3°/oo i n t h e " d "

parameter over the basin, falis short of the
{(y+x)[p(l-h)+hx}-x }f.*+x(p-x)(l-h)C
z k
maximal p o s s i b l e increase a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a k e
(7C) model. As shown i n F i g u r e 1 0 , s u c h an i n c r e a s e i n
y(p-hp+hx)
the value o f "d" corresponds t o a value of x
On s o l v i n g t h e s e t h r e e R a y l e i g h e q u a t i o n s ( 7 a ) , b e t w e e n 0.1 a n d 0.2, d e p e n d i n g o n w h i c h o f t h e
(7b), and ( 7 c ) f o r a g i v e n value o f y as a m o d e l s A-C i s applicable . For t h i s range o f
f u n c t i o n o f 0 < x > ( l - y ) , i t i s s e e n i n F i g u r e 10 values o f x the r e s u l t i s n o t t o o s e n s i t i v e t ot h e
(where t h e case o f y=0.5 i s c o n s i d e r e d ) t h a t t h e s e model a s s u m p t i o n s . S i n c e o u r m o d e l a s s u m p t i o n was
s o l u t i o n s d e s c r i b e a s t r a i g h t l i n e i n •5p v e r s u s t h a t y = 0 . 5 , n a m e l y t h a t t h e t o t a l ET f l u x i s h a l f
of the rain input, this value o f x=0.1-0.2
6 space which connucts the classical Rayleigh
c o r r e s p o n d s t o ar? e v a p o r a t i v e c o m p o n e n t w h i c h i s
p o i n t ( x = o ) f o r t h e chosen r u n o f f r a t i o t o t h e 2 0 - 4 0 % o f t h e t o t a l ET f l u x .
a p p r o p r i a t e p o i n t on t h e " l a k e - e n v e l o p e " . I n t h e I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t o s p e c u l a t e on t h e l o c a t i o n
c a s e o f m o d e l C, w h e r e a t t h e l i m i t o f x = p t h e o f t h e e v a p o r a t i v e c o m p o n e n t o f t h e ET f l u x w i t h i n
l a k e b e h a v e s as a t e r m i n a l one ( a t t h i s p o i n t a l i t h e h y d r o l o g i c c y c l e o f t h e Amazon B a s i n . Even
the runoff obviously originates from the t h o u g h t h e r e a r e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e o p e n - w a t e r áreas
transpiration terrain) so that the equation i n t h i s r e g i o n , e s p e c i a l l y a t high water stand
r e v e r t s t o t h e c l a s s i c a l R a y l e i g h law w i t h y = E * , when t h e r i v e r banks o v e r f l o w into the flood
the s o l u t i o n r u n s u p a n d down t h i s line as a p l a i n , i t i s d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r t h e s e open spaces
f u n c t i o n o f x. can a c c o u n t f o r a l i t h e e v a p o r a t i v e enrichment.
I t i s evident t h a t the basin's r u n o f f r a t i o ( y ) Another p o s s i b l e s i t e f o rt h i s i s o t o p i c enrichment
i s t h e main parameter which c o n t r o l s t h e degree o f is t h e canopy interception processes, which
d e p l e t i o n o f t h e heavy i s o t o p e s i n t h e b a s i n . The a c c o u n t s f o r as much as 3 5 % o f t h e t o t a l ET l o s s
deviation from the meteoric water line (the i n t h e basin [ M o l i o n , 1978b], Obviously, such a
i n c r e a s e i n t h e " d " p a r a m e t e r ) , on t h e o t h e r hand, process i s only p a r t i a l l y e f f e c t i v e i n terms o f

Fig. 10. The i s o t o p i c composition o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n

and of runoff (6 ) f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t ET
systems (shown i n F i g u r e 9) w i t h y=0.5 and h=0.75.
The i n s e t shows t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n ò and 6
y P
as a f u n c t i o n o f x , as g i v e n b y e q u a t i o n s ( 8 a ) -
(8c).
 Gat and Matsui: An Isotopic E-T Model. o f t h e Amazon Basin 13,187

Fig. 11. Thr/oughflow and stemflow isotopic

compositions as a r e s u l t o f c a n o p y interception
f r o m d a t a c o l l e c t e d by L e o p o l d o [ 1 9 8 1 ] . The data
c o l l e c t e d from d i f f e r e n t p r e c i p i t a t i o n events are
ali normalized to a value of 6=0 for the
precipitation event o f each day. The averaged
value for a l i stemflow and throughflow,
r e s p e c t i v e l y i s shown by t h e e n c i r c l e d p o i n t and
t h e a v e r a g e d e v i a t i o n i n d . i c a t e d by t h e heavy-set
arrow.

the i s o t o p i c enrichment i n the r e s i d u a l waters: model C: (BC)

t h e d r y i n g up o f t h e wet canopy r e s u l t s i n t o t a l
x(l-h)(l-~5-)
reevaporation of that part of the intercepted
ó - ô £— - U* + CJ
moisture, and i t is only when a subsequent
y p y(l-y+-h)
rainshower washes down the (partially P
fractionated) residue on the canopy that the
a n t i c i p a t e d e f f e c t can r e s u l t . The o n l y r e l e v a n t Ali runoff data in versus S^g space evidently
data are from Leopoldo's t h e s i s [ L e o p o l d o , 1981]
during the course of which isotope data from fali on t h e same l i n e with slope
t h r o u g h f l o w and s t e m f l o w were c o l l e c t e d i n a s i t e
on Duke r e s e r v e n e a r Manaus a n d c o m p a r e d t o t h e (^ k>DC

(9)
i s o t o p i c composition of the p r e c i p i t a t i o n . These
(e*+cK>18
results (shown in Figure 11) are rather
c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n term:; o f e n r i c h m e n t o f t h e h e a v y
isotopes during the process and are more (an e v a p o r a t i o n l i n e ) , which i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f
consistent with a selection of different rain the locus l i n e f o r a l i p r e c i p i t a t i o n data which
f r a c t i o n s ( w i t h v a r y i n g i s o t o p i c c o n t e n t ) by t h e correspond t o these t h r e e models.
interception process rather than a simple The values of (<5y—^p)\ a r e given i n Figure 10
evaporative mechanism. I t is thus doubtful for the conditions of y = 0.5; h = 0.75.
w h e t h e r canopy i n t e r c e p t i o n adds s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o E v i d e n t l y , data of both the l o c a l precipitation
the i n c r e a s e i n t h e "d" p a r a m e t e r . a n d t h e l o c a l r u n o f f w o u l d be i n f o r m a t i v e .
The i s o t o p i c e n r i c h m e n t i n t h e r u n o f f f l u x f r o m U n f o r t u n a t e l y v e r y f e w l o c a l r u n o f f d a t a a r e so
a b a s i n i s a much more m o d e l - s e n s i t i v e m e a s u r e far available, i . e . , data from small plots
than the atmospheric c o m p o n e n t s , a n d t h u s t o be throughout which i t can be assumed that
p r e f e r r e d i f one w i s h e s t o t r a c e t h e p l a c e o f t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s more o r l e s s u n i f o r m . I n the
evaporation element w i t h i n the h y d r o l o g i c cycle, a b s e n c e o f d a t a f r o m more l o c a l l y d e t a i l e d r u n o f f
i . e . , t o s e l e c t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e sequence o f s t e p s sampling the question o f the l o c a t i o n of the s i t e
as i n v a r i a n t s A, B, o r C o f t h e ET m o d e l . o f open s u r f a c e evaporati.on w i t h i n the basin' s
The i s o t o p i c enrichment o f the r u n o f f i n the h y d r o l o g i c scheme r e m a i n s a n o p e n o n e .
three models is simply the steady state
c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l a k e component i n m o d e l s A and References
B; i n model C t h e l a k e ' s r u n o f f c o m p o s i t i o n i s
d i l u t e d by t h e ( u n f r a c t i o n a t e d ) r u n o f f f r o m the C r a i g , H., a n d L. G o r d o n , D e u t e r i u m a n d O x y g e n - 1 8
transpiration terrain: v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e o c e a n and m a r i n e atmosphere,
i n SJ;abJ.e_Js_o_topes i n O c e a n o q r a p h y S t u d i e s a n d
model A: (8A) Paleotemperatures, e d i t e d b y E. T o n g i o r g i , p.
x(l-h) 9-120, S p o l e t t o , 1965.
- a (E* + C ) t

(y+x-yh) D a n s g a a r d , W., Stable isotopes i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,

T e l l u s , 16, 4 3 6 - 4 6 8 , 1964.
Friedman, I . , The Amazon b a s i n , a n o t h e r Sahel?
model B: (8B) S c i e n c e , 197, 6, 1977.
x(l-h) G a t , J . R., The i s o t o p e s o f h y d r o g e n a n d o x y g e n i n
(e*
(1-h+hx) precipitation, i n Handbook of Environmental
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I s o t o p e G e o c h e m i s t r y , e d i t e d b y P. F r i t z and J . P r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t h e C e n t r a l Amazon B a s i n : The

F o n t e s , v o l . 1 , p . 2 1 , E l s e v i e r , 1.981. isotopic c o m p o s i t i o n o f r a i n and a t m o s p h e r i c
Gat, J . R., a n d R, G o n f i a n t i n i , Stable isotope m o i s t u r e a t Belém a n d M a n a u s , A c t a A m a z o n i c a ,
hydro.logy. Deuterium and oxygen-18 i n the 13 , 3 0 7 , 1 9 8 3 .
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Energy Agency, 1981. t h e Amazon B a s i n a n d a . s s o c i a t e d r a i n - p r o d u c i n g
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E n v i r o n m e n t a l i s o t o p e d a t a n o . 6: W o r l d survey e d i t e d b y R, E. D i c k i n s o n , p . 3 9 1 , J o h n W i l e y ,
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