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ypsum is a major component of soils in many arid and are based on dissolution of gypsum from the soil, selective pre-
semiarid areas of the world. It has been estimated that cipitation of the gypsum by adding acetone, and dissolution
more than 100 million ha of the world’s soils are classified as of the reprecipitated gypsum with water. The solution can be
Gypsisols or soils containing >5% gypsum (FAO, 1990; Verheye analyzed by measuring electrical conductivity (EC), since there
and Boyadgiev, 1997). It has been found that Gypsisols are im- is a correlation between the amount of dissolved salts and EC
portant as a refuge for rare, vulnerable, and endangered species (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954), or by analyzing SO42−
like bryophytes and lichens. About 20% of the total bryophyte (Loeppert and Suarez, 1996) or Ca2+ (van Reeuwijk, 1987).
and lichen flora are rare or endemic species that live exclusively There are variations depending on the method used, but since
or almost exclusively on gypsiferous substrates (Guerra et al., we cannot be certain that either SO42− or Ca2+ came exclusive-
1995). These habitats are ranked among the most threatened ly from gypsum, especially in arid soils, and the exchangeable
ecosystems worldwide, and are considered a priority conserva- cations in the clay complex may add or remove Ca from the
tion concern (Belnap et al., 2001; Mota et al., 2003). solution, error is unavoidable.
There are a number of methods in the literature to quan- X-ray diffraction is good as a qualitative method for deter-
tify the gypsum content of soils. In general, these methods can mining the presence or absence of gypsum (Khan and Webster,
be classified into three groups: wet chemical methods, thermo- 1968). It is relatively easy to obtain measurements, provided one
gravimetric methods, and x-ray techniques. The wet chemical has access to the expensive apparatus. Quantitative determina-
methods are time consuming and have intrinsic problems; they tion is cumbersome and time consuming, however, and be-
comes especially difficult in mixed-mineralogy soils. Therefore,
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 73:403-411 a number of researchers have suggested measuring the water
doi:10.2136/sssaj2008.0001 loss from gypsum as a simple, rapid, and cost-effective way of
Received 1 Jan. 2008. determining soil gypsum content.
*Corresponding author (inma_lebron@yahoo.com).
Thermogravimetric methods have been considered for
© Soil Science Society of America
a long time as a semiquantitative approach; in Loeppert and
677 S. Segoe Rd. Madison WI 53711 USA
All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or
Suarez (1996), the method of Nelson et al. (1978) was rec-
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, ommended as a precursor to the wet chemical method to
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and determine the dilution needed to dissolve all the gypsum in
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. the sample. This method is based on the difference between
Permission for printing and for reprinting the material contained the masses of a sample equilibrated for 48 h in a desiccator
herein has been obtained by the publisher. with silica gel and after drying in an oven at 105°C for 24 h;
Gypsum
no desiccator 0.51 ± 0.03 2.39 ± 1.58 19.75 ± 0.15 20.91 ± 0.10 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
desiccator 0.04 ± 0.02 1.43 ± 1.71 18.82 ± 0.34 19.75 ± 0.64 Figure 1 presents the gravimetric
water content of the mineral samples as a
the desiccator with drierite, and allowed them to cool down for 3 h. We function of RH. In effect, this diagram demonstrates the water
weighed the soil samples again and returned them to the desiccator and release characteristic of the clay minerals as a function of RH.
reweighed the samples after 2 d. We repeated the procedure with fresh This diagram illustrates the flaw in the assumption that by plac-
samples each time and heated at 70, 105, or 200°C. We used a styro- ing the samples in a desiccator with a RH of 12 or 20%, the clay
foam block as a thermal insulator for weighing to avoid errors in the minerals will lose all their absorbed water and that any further
measurements or damage to the scale (data shown in Table 3). water loss on oven drying is due exclusively to gypsum. The
We repeated the heating process at 50, 70, 105, and 200°C with apparent success in previous work was because Na-bentonite
a new batch of soil samples, weighing the samples before and after was used as a standard (Nelson et al., 1978), which loses almost
oven drying, but this time the samples were left open to the laboratory all of its adsorbed water at 20% RH. Figure 1 shows, however,
atmosphere at 37% relative humidity and 21°C. The mass increase of that Ca- and Mg-saturated montmorillonites both have >10%
the samples was registered every 10 min for the first hour and then at gravimetric water content remaining at a RH of 20%; even
every hour and every 3 and 12 h until constant mass. Constant mass at 12% RH, the water contents are >7%. Figure 1 shows that
not only the mineralogy but also the dominant cation present
in our soils is very important, especially Ca-montmorillonite,
which is common in semiarid ecosystems. Water loss on oven
drying will be a combination of water from the clay as well as
from the gypsum. This could potentially result in large errors
in the estimation of the gypsum content, depending on the
clay percentage in the sample.
The gravimetric water content of gypsum and bassanite
are also presented in Fig. 1, they follow almost straight lines
across the wide humidity range shown. When gypsum is heat-
ed at 105°C, its water of crystallization is removed; subsequent
rehydration in the laboratory results in the formation of bas-
sanite at relative humidities below saturation (100% RH). As
bassanite has only 0.5 of a water molecule per unit cell, there is
a loss of 1.5 water molecules between the gypsum and bassan-
ite phases, representing a 15.68% reduction in mass compared
with gypsum. In our experiments, we found that we could re-
cover the original gypsum from the bassanite phase only by
physically wetting the sample.
Fig. 1. Water content relative to oven dryness for different clay Rehydration curves for four different gypsum reagent
minerals at different relative humidities. The water content for samples, following gypsum removal from the oven at 105°C,
gypsum and bassanite is shown as ×. are presented in Fig. 2. The graph shows that, left in the labora-
collected from the depths specified in Table 1. The samples (Table 2) was thoroughly mixed with 1.8-g samples of a
were air dried, ground, and passed through a 2-mm sieve. nongypsic soil in triplicate to give 10% soluble salt or 2.5%
The <2-mm fraction was ground further to pass through a of each sulfate salt as an extreme case. The soil-salt mixture
0.5-mm sieve for chemical analysis. The soil analysis data was shaken with 25 mL of 50% ethanol for 1.0 h on a
presented in Table 1 were determined according to convention- horizontal shaker. The supernatant solution was separated by
ally accepted methods (Page et al., 1982). Particle-size analysis centrifugation as described above and analyzed for SO^ turbi-
was obtained by the standard pipette method after removal of dimetrically. This provided a test of the extent of soluble
organic matter, gypsum, and carbonates (Day, 1965). sulfate removal from the soil samples by 50% ethanol compared
with that of the same sulfate salts in 50% ethanol but without
Proposed Method the soil sample.
Triplicate 2.0-g soil samples in 50-mL polycarbonate centri- Comparative Method
fuge tubes were washed once with 25-mL portions of 50%
ethanol to remove soluble sulfates while reducing the solubility Soil samples were extracted with water at different soil/
of gypsum..The bulk solution was centrifuged and the sediment water ratios (Nelson, 1982) and gypsum content was obtained
was suspended in 25 mL of the 0.50 M NaaCOs solution by by the Bower-Huss (1948) method and from SO4~ analysis
a 30-s Bonification to disturb formation of stable CaCO3(s) by turbidimetry (Greenberg et al., 1985).
coating on gypsum, thus enhancing its stoichiometric conver-
sion to water-soluble Na2SO4. The supernatant solution was Statistics
centrifuged at 1000 X g and 25° C, then filtered quantitatively
through Whatman no. 42 filter paper. This extraction procedure For statistical comparisons of the methods, the coefficient
was repeated until a negative test for sulfate with BaCk crystals of variation (CV) and analysis of variance of the means were
was obtained. Sulfate in the aqueous extract was measured by determined by Tukey's honestly significant difference tests
standard BaSO* gravimetry and turbidimetry after the necessary to compare the methods within each soil collection. Linear
dilutions and acidification were made to prevent precipitation regression analysis was used to depict the graphical relations
of BaCO3 and Ba3(PO4)2 (Greenberg et al., 1985). Also, the between the methods.
correction for sample color and turbidity was applied for
turbidimetric SO4~ measurement as described by Greenberg RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
et al. (1985). Gypsum content in the soil samples was obtained
from SOl~ analysis assuming that all the SOl~ in the extract The selected soils were classified as Typic Gypsior-
came from soil gypsum, CaSO4-2H2O: thids, which are the most common soils of the experiment
station. The soil samples were selected to cover a wide
gypsum (g)/soil (kg) = [SO?- (g)/soil (kg) (172/96.1)] [3]
range in gypsum content (52.4-698 g kg"1), CaC(>3
Known Addition of Gypsum equivalent (72.5-222 g kg"1), and other properties as
shown in Table 1.
The accuracy of the proposed method of gypsum extraction Soil samples were washed once with 50% ethanol to
from gypsic soils was determined by adding known quantities remove the soluble sulfates of common cations of arid-
(100 and 200 g gypsum kg~' soil) of a reference-grade gypsum zone soils (Na, Mg, K, and NRt) and possibly the
(100 ± 1 % purity) to the samples, then using the proposed organically bound SOij" prior to gypsum extraction. This
method of extraction and turbidimetric SOi~ analysis to com-
pute the relative quantity of gypsum recovered. was done to minimize the positive error, i.e., overestima-
tion of SOl" from nongypsic sources, and meanwhile
Correction Measures
Table 2. Solubilities of sulfate salts of common soil cations in 50%
Soils may contain nongypsic soluble sulfates of Mg, Na, ethanol, determined in our laboratory at 25°C.
K, and NYU but amounts seldom exceed 2% (Nelson, 1982). Single Equimolar Saturated
These soluble sulfates cause positive errors in gypsum determi- Salt salt additiont solution:):
nation from SO4~ analysis unless a correction is applied for « T -1
such SO4~ or it is removed selectively prior to gypsum extrac-
tion. (NH&SO, 95.5 10.0 40.6
Na2SO4 97.4 10.2 28.4
The solubility of each sulfate of the common soil cations K2S04 1.6 3.0 3.6
and an equimolar mixture (taking 10.0 g (NH4)2SO4 L~' solvent MgS04-6H2O 12.8 2 7.4 1.6
as the basis for calculations) in 50% ethanol was determined CaSO4-2H2O 1.0 x 10- 1.7 x 10-2 2.5 x 10-2
at 25° C. A 0.200-g soluble sulfate mixture, consisting of equal t Addition based on 10 g (NH^SO, L-> of 50% ethanol.
weights (50 mg) each of NH/, Na + , K + , and Mg2+ sulfate t Solution saturated with cosolutes simultaneously.
14350661, 1994, 6, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2136/sssaj1994.03615995005800060006x by University of Queensland Library, Wiley Online Library on [01/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1626 SOIL SCI. SOC. AM. J., VOL. 58, NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1994
Table 3. Soil gypsum extraction by the proposed method and measurement by gravimetric (Method A) and turbidimetric SO2" (Method
B) analyses vs. water extraction and measurement by turbidimetric SOi" (Method C) and the Bower-Huss conductometric (Method
D) analyses. Values represent averages of three replications.
Sample no. Method A CV Method B CV Method C CV Method D CV HSDt
1 1
gkg- % gkg- % gkg- 1
% gkg- 1
% gkg- 1
1.1 52.4 2.4 47.9 2.9 45.0* 5.9 43.0* 5.9 5.4
1.2 698 1.5 705 1.6 557» 3.1 593* 3.7 42.0
2.1 391 5.1 385 2.0 355 4.0 295* 4.7 38.2
2.2 124 1.6 116 1.1 91.7* 6.6 105* 11.0 17.3
3.1 188 2.9 184 3.8 144* 4.8 139* 6.1 18.5
3.2 341 1.3 313 2.4 213* 8.2 217* 5.2 29.6
3.3 492 3.7 477 1.4 358* 4.0 326 5.3 56.4
* Significant (P = 0.05) compared with the standard method (A).
t Tukey's honestly significant difference (P = 0.05) to compare the results of four methods of gypsum determination within each soil sample.
greatly reduce the solubility of gypsum (Matushevskiy, samples (Table 3). These differences are vividly seen in
1968) thus minimizing the negative error resulting from the scattergrams where the best-fit regression lines devi-
its loss with the solvent. The efficiency of this solvent ate from the 1:1 line as the gypsum content of soil
was verified by 100% recovery of 2.5% additions of samples increases (Fig. Ib and Ic). On the other hand,
each of Na, Mg, K, and NUt sulfate as mixtures with the agreement between the best-fit regression line and
nongypsic soil samples based on turbidimetric SO2." anal- the 1:1 line for Methods C vs. D is very good (Fig.
ysis. Also, the data of Table 2 show that gypsum solubility Id), indicating that the extraction procedure was the
in 50% ethanol is very low (1.0 x 10~2 to 2.5 x 10~2 g major cause for the deviations of Methods C and D from
L"1) depending on the composition of solution. Thus, the Methods A and B. Also, it is worth noting that Methods
negative error in gypsum determination in soils caused by C and D displayed lower precision given by CV ranges
its dissolution in 25 mL of this solvent per 2-g soil (3.1-8.2 and 3.7-11.0%, respectively; Table 3).
sample is not likely to exceed 0.62 mg or 0.031 %, which In general, the gypsum contents were higher when
is negligible. Moreover, treatment of soil samples with extracted by the proposed method (N^COs solution)
50% ethanol can retard biological transformation of whether SOl~ was measured by the standard gravimetric
SO?T, thus eliminating the error that may arise from this (A) or the turbidimetric (B) method. Moreover, the soil
source. gypsum extracted by the proposed method and by distilled
The Na2CO3 solution was selected to convert soil water (Nelson, 1982) was determined from SO2," by the
gypsum to soluble Na2SO4 and CaCC>3(s) for several same turbidimetric method (B and C) yet differences
reasons: (i) it and its reaction product NaaSC^ are very exist between the two sets of data (B vs. C, Table 3),
soluble in water, (ii) it is relatively inexpensive, and which should be ascribed largely to the variation between
(iii) soil treatment with its excess will saturate the ex- the two methods of gypsum extraction. This means that
change sites with Na + . This will allow good dispersion distilled water, which has been used routinely, is a weak
of the soil suspension with Bonification, which is effective extractant for gypsum (15 mM) where a very wide water/
for rapid dissolution of gypsum since the Ca2+ displaced soil ratio with numerous extractions were required for
from the exchanger and that derived from gypsum will improved gypsum extraction from soils high in gypsum
precipitate as CaCO3(s), leaving behind SO2." in solution
that can be separated and analyzed. 800 800
Ten y = 7.28 +1.00 X y=6.03*0.79X
The values of gypsum content of the soil samples "£,600 r = 0.98 600 r = 0.98
obtained with the two methods of extraction and three CO
methods of determinations are listed in Table 3. Method S 400 400
A is used for comparison because it is the standard .£
a*
method for SO2." analysis. The agreement between the 2 200 200
values obtained with Methods A and B is excellent (r = 0
0.98). There were no significant differences at P = 0.05 I 200 400 600, 800 200 400 600 800
between the two sets of data by analysis of variance and Method A gkg" Method A gkg"'
also as shown by the best-fit regression line, which "iai
800 £00
y =6.77* 1.00 X
coincides with the 1:1 line (Fig. la). Methods A and B "o. 600
' CTl
£600 r = 0.99
have about the same precision measured by CV range o
.(1.3-5.1 and 1.1-3.8%, respectively). The agreement •a A 00
o
between Methods A and B used here is closer than that
found in Chesnin and Yien (1950) for SO2." extraction 1200 1 200
from a sandy soil from Nebraska. Since the turbidimetric 0 0
method (B) of SO?r analysis is simple, rapid, and accu- 200 400 600 800 200 400 600 800
rate, we recommend it for gypsum determination in soils. Method A gkg'' Method C gkg"
The differences between the values of gypsum content Fig. 1. Comparison of the methods used for gypsum determination
obtained wiJi Methods A and C were significant (P = of the soil samples: (a) turbidimetric B vs. gravimetric A, (b)
0.05) for six out of seven soil samples, whereas with turbidimetric C vs. gravimetric A, (c) conductometric D vs. gravi-
Method D the differences were significant for all the metric A, and (d) conductometric D vs. turbidimetric C.
14350661, 1994, 6, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2136/sssaj1994.03615995005800060006x by University of Queensland Library, Wiley Online Library on [01/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
BERIGARI & AL-ANY: GYPSUM DETERMINATION BY CONVERSION TO SODIUM SULFATE 1627
Table 4. Recovery of gypsum added to 2-g soil samples as extracted by the proposed method and obtained from turbidimetric SO3 ~ analysis.
Values represent averages of triplicates, unless otherwise specified.
Gypsum Gypsum
Present Present
Sample + G,t Found CV Recovery^ + G2t Found CV Recovery:):
———— g k g - > - 1
———— gkg- -
1.1 148 144 1.3 97.3 248 239 1.0 96.4
1.2 805 798 0.5 99.1 905 890 0.6 98.3
2.1 485 478 0.9 98.6 585 572 0.8 97.8
2.2 216 211 1.1 97.7 316 306 0.7 96.8
3.1 284 282 0.8 99.3 384 377 2.3 98.2
3.2 413 406 2.9 98.3 513 508 0.3 99.0
3.3 577 579 3.0 100 677 666 1.2 98.4
Mean (n = 7) 1.5 98.6 1.0 97.8
t Gi and Gi represent 100 and 200 g additions of gypsum kg"1 sofl sample, respectively.
t Percentage recovery is based on total gypsum found divided by [gypsum present (Table 3, Column 4) plus that added] x 100.
contents. These operations are laborious and time con- its determination from turbidimetric 864 analysis ap-
suming, as have been experienced by other investigators pears to be simple, rapid, accurate, and very efficient
(Lagerwerffetal., 1965; Nelson, 1982). relative to the methods where water is used as the ex-
Table 4 shows the data of gypsum recovery from two tractant.
levels of standard additions to various soil samples using
the proposed method of Na2COs extraction with turbidi- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
metric SOi~ analysis. The recovery of gypsum ranged
between 96.4 and 100%, with an overall mean of 98.2%, We wish to thank Lila H. Ibrahim and Ahlam H. Al-Khafaji
which is very good considering the speed and simplicity for certain phases of laboratory work and F.J. Jack for the
of the extraction and measurement steps and the complex- graphical work.
ity of soil systems.
The efficiency of the proposed method of gypsum
extraction relative to that obtained by water is shown in
Table 5. With the proposed method, two equilibrations
at a solution/soil ratio of 25:2 were sufficient to extract
gypsum completely from four soil samples selected to
bracket the range of gypsum content (Tables 1 and 3).
However, extraction with water required a wider water/
soil ratio, 250:2, and a greater number of equilibrations
even for low levels of gypsum, such as 5% in the case
of Sample no. 1.1 (Table 3). The efficiency of gypsum
extraction for the proposed method relative to that by
water as defined by Eq. [4] ranged from 9 to 28.7 for
the first equilibration, increasing with the increase in
gypsum content. The efficiency of gypsum extraction
varied depending on the initial gypsum content of the
soil sample and the sequence of extraction. Mean values
of 25.0 to 30.7 with an overall average of 27.8 were
obtained with the proposed method (Table 5).
The proposed method of soil gypsum extraction and