CHAPTER 2

 Pressure
= P = F/A (Force / Area)
= F = P × A (Pressure × Area)
= MKS System = kgf / m2 and kgf / cm2
= SI System = N / m2 and N / mm2 (N / m2 also known as Pascal or Pa)
= kPa (kilo pascal) = 1000 N/m2 or Pa
= bar = 100 kPA = 105 N / m2 or Pa

 Pascal’s Law
= It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all
directions.

 Hydrostatic Law
= It states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be
equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
= P = ρgZ (Density × Gravity × Height from the free surfaces)
= Z (Pressure Head) = P / ρg

 Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric, and Vacuum Pressures

= Absolute pressure = with reference to absolute vacuum pressure
= Gauge pressure = measured with the help of a pressure measuring instrument, in which
the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
= Vacuum pressure = pressure below the atmospheric pressure
= Pab = Patm + Pgauge
= Vacuum pressure = Patm - Pab
Note: 1. the atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15°C is 101.3 kN/m2 or 10.13 N/cm2 in
SI Units. In case of MKS units, 1.033 kgf/cm2.
2. The atmospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury at 10.33 m of water.

 Measurement of Pressure
= The pressure of a fluid is measure by the following devices: Manometers and
Mechanical Gauges.
 Manometers
= defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by
balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They
are classified as: Simple Manometers and Differential Manometers.
 Mechanical Gauges
 = defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by balancing the fluid
column by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used mechanical gauges are
Diaphragm pressure gauge, Bourdon tube pressure gauge, Dead-weight pressure
gauge, and Bellows pressure gauge.

 Simple Manometers
= Common types of simple manometers are Piezometer, U-tube Manometer, and Single
Column Manometer.
 Piezometer
= Simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures.
= P = ρ × g × h (N/m2)
 U-tube Manometer
= consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape. The tube generally contains mercury or
any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the
liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
= For Gauge Pressure: P = [(ρ2 × g × h2) – (ρ1× g × h1)].
= For Vacuum Pressure: P = - [(ρ2 × g × h2) + (ρ1× g × h1)].
 Single Column Manometer
= modified form of U-tube manometer that has a reservoir which has a large
cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area of the tube
connected. There are two types of single column manometer as: Vertical Single
Column Manometer and Inclined Single Column Manometer.
= For Vertical Single Column Manometer: PA = [(a × h2)/A] [(ρ2 × g) – (ρ1× g)]
+ (h2 × ρ2 × g) – (h1 × ρ1 × g)
Note: Where a = Cross-sectional area of the right limb and A = Cross-sectional
area of the reservoir.
= For Inclined Single Column Manometer: P = (sin Θ × ρ2 × g) – (ρ1× g × h1)

 Differential Manometers
= devices used for measuring the difference of pressure between two points in a pipe or
in two different pipes.
 U-tube Differential Manometer
= For points at different levels: PA - PB = h × g (ρg – ρ1) + ρ2gy – ρ1gx
= For points at the same level: PA - PB = g × h (ρg – ρ1)
Note: 1kgf = 9.81N
 Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer
= consists of an inverted U-tube containing a light liquid. It is used for measuring
difference of low pressures.
= PA - PB = [(ρ1× g × h1) – (ρ2 × g × h2) – (ρs × g × h)]