Fluid Statics

This chapter aims to:

Determine the variation of pressure in a fluid at rest.
Calculate pressure using various kinds of manometers.
Calculate the forces and moments exerted by a fluid at rest on plane or curved submerged
surfaces

1.0 Fluid Pressure P

Fluid pressure is transmitted with equal intensity in all directions and acts normal to any plane. In the
same horizontal plane the pressure intensities in a liquid are equal. Measurements of unit pressures are
accomplished by using various forms of gages. Unless otherwise stated, gage or relative pressures will
be used throughout this book. Gage pressures represent values above or below atmospheric pressure.

F
P=
A

The unit of pressure is expressed as the force divided by area. In general,

F
P=
A
Pressure is commonly given in units of lb /f t 2 (psf), lb/in2 (psi), or Pa ( N /m 2 ), depending on units of
force and area.

Absolute, gage and vacuum pressures

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).

Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they
indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference
is called the gage pressure. Pgage can be positive or negative, but pressures below atmospheric
pressure are sometimes called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.

Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are related to each other by

Pgage =P|¿|− P atm ¿
Positive sign indicates a gage pressure above atmosphere and negative sign indicates pressure at
vacuum.

Variation of Pressure with Depth

Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because more fluid rests on deeper layers, and the effect of this
“extra weight” on a deeper layer is balanced by an increase in pressure

Where such differences must be recognized for small changes in elevation dh , the law of pressure
variation can be written

dp=−γdh

Where: dp=differential pressure

dh=elevation∨depth
γ =specific weight of fluid
h
 ∆h

Pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with vertical distance from the free surface.

Pascal’s Law
Pressure in a fluid is the same in all directions

The pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal direction is that the pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.
Assumptions:
 Fluid at rest
 Negligible gravitational force

P1 P2

F1 F 2
P1=P2=P= =
A 1 A2

Pascal’s Law Limitations.

  Fluid in Motion
 Gravitational Force

P2=P1 + ρgh
Example Calculations:

1. A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location where the atmospheric pressure is
14.5 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.

Given:
Pvacuum =5.8 psi
Patm =14.5 psi
P|¿|=? ¿

Solution
Pgage =P|¿|− P atm ¿
Where gage pressure in at vacuum, therefore use a negative sign in the equation for gage reading.
−5.8 psi=P|¿|−14.5 psi¿
P|¿|=8.7 psi¿ or 8.7 psia

2. Determine the pressure in psi at a depth of 20.0 ft below the free surface of a body of water.

P= ρgh=γh
Where: γ of water=62.4 lb/ f t 3
lb lb lb f t2
Therefore,
(
P= 62.4
ft 3 ) ft (
( 20 ft )=1248 2 →¿ psi= 1248 2
ft )( )
( 12inch )2
=8.67 psig

3. Find the absolute pressure in psi in Problem 2 when the barometer reads 29.90 in of mercury,
SG=13.57.

Solution:

Pgage =P|¿|− P ¿ atm

P|¿|= P +P (atmospheric∨barometric pressure=ρgh of mercury∨γh)¿

gage

Where γ Hg=SG Hg x γ water = ( 13.57 )

(62.4 flbt ) ¿
3
P lb
|¿|=8.67
(
psi+ 0.49
in )
3
( 29.90 ) =23.32 psia ¿

4. Consider a hydraulic jack being used in a car repair shop. The pistons have an area of A1 = 0.8 c m2
and A2 = 0.04 m . Hydraulic oil with a specific gravity of 0.870 is pumped in as the small piston on the left
2

side is pushed up and down, slowly raising the larger piston on the right side. A car that weighs 13,000 N
is to be jacked up.

(a) At the beginning, when both pistons are at the same elevation (h = 0), calculate the force F 1 in
Newton’s required to hold the weight of the car.

F1 F A 0.8 c m 2 1m 2
P 1=
A1
=P2= 2 → F 1=F 2 1 =13000 N
A2 A2 0.04 m2 ( )( )
100 cm
=26 N
(b) Repeat the calculation after the car has been lifted two meters (h = 2 m). Compare and discuss.

Solution:
P1=P2 + γh
N N
Where γ oil =SG x γ water=0.870 x 9810 3
=8534.7 3
m m

F 1 13000 N N N
P 1= =
A 1 0.04 m 2
m (
+ 8534.7 3 ( 2m )=342069.4 2
m )
N 2 m2
F 1=342069.4 x 0.8 c m x =27.4 N
m2 ( 100 cm )2

Pressure Measurement Devices

Barometer
The Barometer Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure

Patm =ρgh

Piezometers and Manometers

Although a barometer can be used to measure atmospheric pressure, it is often necessary to measure
pressures of other fluids. There are a number of ways to accomplish this task. For liquids, a tube may be
attached to the wall of the container (or conduit) in which the liquid resides so liquid can rise in the tube.
By determining the height to which liquid rises, the pressure of the liquid in the container (or conduit) can
be determined. Such a device is known as a piezometer.

1
To avoid capillary effects, a piezometer tube's diameter should be about in (13 mm) or greater
2
A somewhat more complicated device for measuring fluid pressure consists of a bent tube (or tubes)
containing one or more liquids of different specific gravities. Such a device is known as a manometer.

In using a manometer, generally a known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to one end of
the manometer tube and the unknown pressure to be determined is applied to the other end.

In some cases, however, the difference between the pressures at the ends of the manometer tube is
desired rather than the actual pressure at either end.
A manometer to determine this pressure difference is known as a differential manometer. The liquids in
a manometer will rise or fall as the pressure at either end (or both ends) of the tube changes. The
pressure in a container (or conduit) using a manometer is determined by transforming heights of liquids
within the manometer tube to pressures

The general procedure in calculation is to start at one end of the manometer tube and proceed from each
fluid level to the next, adding or subtracting pressures as the elevation decreases or increases,
respectively.

Examples

Patm + ρ1 g h1 + ρ2 g h2 + ρ3 g h 3=P1

Example Calculations:

1. Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 740 mmHg and the
gravitational acceleration is ¿ 9.805 m/s 2 . Assume the temperature of mercury to be 10°C, at which its
density is 1 3,570 kg/ m 3 .

Solution:
Patm =ρgh
 kg m N
(
Patm = 13570
m 3)( )
9.805 2 ( 0.740 m ) =98359 2 or 98.4 kPa
s m

2. The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as
shown in Fig. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric
pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if h1 = 0.1 m, h2 = 0.2 m, and h3 = 0.35 m.
Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury to be 1000 ¿ m 3 , 850 kg /m 3 , and 13,600 kg /m 3 ,
respectively.

P1 + ρwater g h1 + ρoil g h 2=ρ Hg g h3 + P2

Or
P1 + ρwater g ( h1 +h 2) −ρwater g h2 −ρoil g h1 + ρoil g ( h 1+ h2 )−ρ Hg g h 3=P2

P1 + ρwater g h1 + ρoil g h 2−ρ Hg g h3=P2

Where P2=P atmosphere 85.6 kPa
Substituting the values
P1=ρ Hg g h 3+ P 2−ρwater g h1− ρoil g h2
P1=13600 x 9.81 x 0.35+85600−1000 x 9.81 x 0.1−850 x 9.81 x 0.2=129499
N
∨129.6 kPa
m2

Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

The force F exerted by a liquid on a plane area A is equal to the product of the specific weight γ of the
liquid, depth of the center of gravity of the areah cg, and the area.
F=γ hcg A
Note that the product of specific weight and depth of the center of gravity of the area yields the intensity of
pressure at the area's center of gravity.

The line of action of the force passes through the center of pressure, which can be located by applying
the formula
I cg
y cp = +y
y cg A cg
where y cg is the moment of inertia of the area about its center of gravity axis
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged curved Surfaces
The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force on a curved surface is equal to the normal force on the
vertical projection of the surface. The component acts through the center of pressure for the vertical
projection.
The vertical component of the hydrostatic force on a curved surface is equal to the weight of the volume
of liquid above the area, real or imaginary. The force passes through the center of gravity of the volume.

Calculation Examples:

1. Determine the resultant force F due to water acting on the 3 m by 6 m rectangular area AB shown in
Fig.

y cp

y cg =hcg =7 m

Fr
Solution:
kN
F=γ hcg A=9.81 x ( 4 m+ 3 m ) x ( 6 m x 3 m )=1236 kN
m3
This resultant force acts at the center of pressure which is at a distance y cpfrom axis O 1and
 3 x 63
I 12
y cp = cg + y cg = +7=7.43 m¿ O1
y cg A 7 x( 3 x 6)

2. Determine the resultant force due to water acting on the 4 m by 6 m triangular area CD shown in Fig.
The apex of the triangle is at C.

y cg
h cg y cp

2
F r=γ hcg A=9.81 kN 3+
[ ( 3
x sin 45 x 6 )]( 12 x 4 x 6 )=686 kN
This force acts at a distance y cpfrom axis O2 and is measured along the plane of the area CD.

b h3
36 4 x 63 /36 5.83
y cp = + y cg = + =8.49 m¿ axis O 2
y cg A 5.83 1 sin 45
( )(
sin 45 2
x 4 x6 )
Determine and locate the components of the force due to the water acting on curved area AB in Fig., per
meter of its length.

Solution:

F h=force∈vertical projection CB=γ hcg A CB =9.81 kN x 3 m x ( 6 x 1 ) =176.6 kN

2
acting ()
3
(6)=4 m ¿C

π r2
F v =weight of water above area AB=9.81 kN
4 (
x 1 m =277 kN )
acting through the center of gravity of the volume of liquid. The center of gravity of a quadrant of a circle is
4r
located at a distance from either mutually perpendicular radius. Thus
3π
 4 x6
x cp= =2.55 m¿ the¿ line BC .
3π

References:

Books:
Cengel, Y. A. and Cimbala, J. M.(2018). Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications. 4th Edition.
New York: McGraw Hill Education
Ronald et. al.(2014). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics. 4th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill Education
White, F. M.(2016). Fluid Mechanics. 8th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill Education.

E-books
Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications. (n.d.). Retrived from
https://b-ok.asia/s/?q=Fluid+Mechanics%3A+Fundamentals+and+Applications