Introduction

The demand for residential buildings has increased in the past few years due to high

building demand. With these demands, there's a need for quality construction of critical

structural elements of residential buildings. Therefore, this assessment addresses the fundamental

construction elements of a typical Class 1a dwelling, relevant AS standards that relate to

concrete Slab for ground floor structures, plumbing services, timber wall structure, and

stormwater drainage. It also covers some of the most common scaffold and access systems.

Lastly, it also covers the most effective methods of minimizing waste in the construction

industry.

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Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................................1

Question 1........................................................................................................................................2

Class 1 Residental Dwelling Construction..................................................................................2

Concrete Slab for a Ground Floor structure............................................................................2

Plumbing Services...................................................................................................................3

Timber Wall Structure.............................................................................................................3

Storm Water Drainage.............................................................................................................4

Question 2:.......................................................................................................................................5

Scaffold and Access Systems in Construction.............................................................................5

Wooden & Timber Scaffolding...............................................................................................5

Patended Scaffolds...................................................................................................................7

Steel Scaffoldings....................................................................................................................7

Question 3........................................................................................................................................8

Construction Waste Reduction Strategies...................................................................................8

Green Building Technology....................................................................................................8

Deconstruction Approach........................................................................................................9

Proper Planning and Procurement...........................................................................................9

Conclusion.................................................................................................................................10

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 List figures
Figure 1: Concreting slab for ground floor (Robati et al. 2018)......................................................4

Figure 2: On-site piping before and after concreting slab (Tam et al. 2018)..................................5

Figure 3: Lumbar modular for walling systems..............................................................................6

Figure 4: In-ground drainage system (PVC-M Pipes).....................................................................7

Figure 5: Typical structure or componets of scaffolding systems (Costin, 2020)...........................8

Figure 6: Typical wooden scaffold on site (alamy.com)...............................................................10

Figure 7: Typical patented scaffolding (Ilgın et al., 2022)............................................................11

Figure 8: Typical scaffold made of steel (Ilgın et al., 2022).........................................................12

Figure 9: Sketch of concrete slab for ground floor........................................................................18

Figure 10: Sketch of direct water suppy system............................................................................18

Figure 11: Sketch of a typicla wall framing..................................................................................19

Figure 12: Sketch of ground drainage system (PVC-M Pipes).....................................................20

Figure 13: Drainage layout (flow of stormwater)..........................................................................20

Figure 14: Harvesting of rainwater in stormwater management...................................................20

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 Question 1

Class 1 Residential Dwelling Construction

Concrete Slab for a Ground Floor structure

Concrete Slab and footings are crucial structural elements in building construction as they

provide a flat foundation surface for wall constructions. The specifications of concrete slabs for

the ground floor vary depending on various factors such as the type of soil on site, the type of

building to be constructed, nature or purpose of the building. For this task, the evaluation is

based on the required materials, construction sequence, and standards that apply to concrete Slab

for ground floor structure on a site in South Australia.

Construction of ground floor slabs for residential buildings in sites in South Australia has

to comply with the standard specifications outlined in AS 2870 for footing and slab

specifications and AS 3600 for concrete and reinforcement. For instance, according to AS 3600,

the concrete Slab for Class 1 residential buildings must be made with a 20mm maximum

nominal aggregate size and a slump of 100mm nominal. Steel reinforcement for the Slab has to

be SL62 with 6mm bar at 200mm spacings with 3-L11TM consisting of 3 longitudinal bars, each

11mm in diameter.

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 Figure 1: Concreting slab for ground floor (Robati et al. 2018)

The work starts with the termite treatment of the excavated ground and dampproofing to

prevent water penetrations to the walls through the Slab. Termite treatment for the project must

comply with AS 3660. After termite treatment, reinforced steel is laid on the foundations before

properly mixed concrete is poured into the falsework prepared for Slab concreting ( Shaw, 2019).

The essential construction materials include cement, sand, aggregate, and water; these materials

are mixed in the ratio specified by the BCA standards based on the type of soil and the purpose

of the building.

Plumbing Services

Plumbing works begin during foundation construction by laying the underground

drainage and sewer lines before concreting the foundation slab. Plumbing services are installed

in three phases; underground rough-in phase, aboveground rough-in phase, and trim finish phase.

The sequence of the underground rough-in phase involves connecting all supply and waste

connections from the building to public utilities and identifying entry and exit points in the

building (Biolek, and Hanák, 2019). In the aboveground rough-in phase, the plumber caves holes

in walls and floors to fix or attach pipes to connect fixtures. It is appropriate to test the systems

before sealing the walls or plastering.

The last phase is the finishing stage, which involves fitting bathtubs, shower heads, sinks,

and fire sprinklers as specified under AS 3500. This standard outlines the types and sizes of

pipes to be used to install plumbing services (Shaw, 2019). Materials required for complete

installation of plumbing services include galvanized iron or chromed copper pipes for the

freshwater supply line, PVC or chromed brass pipes for waste line plumbing, among other

fixtures like bathroom and kitchen accessories.

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 Figure 2: On-site piping before and after concreting slab (Tam et al. 2018)

Timber Wall Structure

With the advent of modular construction styles and green buildings, timber wall

structures are becoming popular daily despite being one of the oldest walling methods. Timber is

preferred in walling because of its environmental advantages and ease of construction compared

to other methods. However, timber walls are restricted to low-rise residential buildings due to

limited structural strength and durability. AS 1684 outline the requirement and specifications for

timber framing and walling structures. AS 3660 standards also apply for the termite treatment of

the timber used in wall structures (Shaw, 2019).

The sequence of erecting a timber wall structure starts with proper planning and mapping

the site where to lay the prefabs. Prefabricated modules are sourced from a manufacturer who

must provide building plans to produce fit-and-fix prefabs for quick installation. With prefabs on

site, frames are constructed on key points for support, and then wall components are fixed as per

the structural plan (Costin, 2020). Once frames are erected and external cladding installed, the

roof trusses are attached to the building. Wall installations are fitted in structural studs to

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enhance thermal performance on the building and vapor control layer to prevent interstitial

condensation and limit air leakage.

Figure 3: Lumbar modular for walling systems

Storm Water Drainage

Stormwater drainage systems are a critical part of plumbing services that deals with

directing and channeling the flow direction of stormwater away from structural elements. The

main components of stormwater drainage are external in-ground drainage systems, manholes,

underground tanks, or reservoirs. Stormwater can be a disaster or blessing based on how it's

handled; for instance, if well handled and managed, it can provide water for agricultural or

cleaning purposes, and if poorly managed can cause floods (Biolek, and Hanák, 2019).

Therefore, stormwater drainage is handled with care in residential projects. Specifications for the

construction of stormwater drainage systems are outlined in AS/NZS 3500.3; for example,

Clause 2.4(i) defines the required size and grade specifications for PVC-M and PVC-O pipes to

be used in stormwater drainage systems (Ilgın et al. 2022).

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 Figure 4: In-ground drainage system (PVC-M Pipes)

Question 2:

Scaffold and Access Systems in Construction

Scaffolds are critical temporary structures used in residential construction sites to provide

work platforms for workers and support the original structures. Besides, scaffold and access

systems serve as provisions to provide an elevated platform for completing work at a height that

workers could not otherwise access. There are various types of scaffold and access systems

applicable in construction works (Biolek, and Hanák, 2019). The main structural components or

parts of scaffolding and access system is shown in figure 5. The selection of a specific project

type depends on the nature, size, and type of construction project. For residential constructions,

scaffolds made up of steel or timber are often used because they offer the efficient strength and

stability required to support the workers and the structural elements under construction (Hayward

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et al., 2022). Some of the three most commonly used scaffolds in residential constructions are;

wooden & timber scaffolds, tube & clamp scaffolds (steel scaffolds), and patented scaffoldings.

Figure 5: Typical structure or componets of scaffolding systems (Costin, 2020)

Wooden & Timber Scaffolding

Wooden scaffolds are the most common type in the construction of residential projects

across the country. They are made of lumber to form a 'brick layer's scaffolding' for low-rise

residential constructions and consist of ledgers, standards, and putlogs to fit on the walls. It's one

of the oldest types of scaffolding systems utilized for brick masonry. Brick's layer scaffolding

comprises standards, ledgers, putlogs, and braces that are 1.2m from the wall. According to this

scaffolding technique, vertical lumber or wood components called standards are securely

implanted into the ground in a row parallel to the structure, with 2.5 to 3.0 meters between each

standard. Ledgers link the standards at 1.3 to 1.6 meter intervals (Biolek, and Hanák, 2019).

Putlogs fill the wall space between ledgers. 1.3 to 1.6 meters separates each putlog. Cross-

diagonal rope lashing connects braces to standards.

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 Wooden scaffolds were the most common type until the fabrication of steel scaffolds

became much more affordable. It's the most preferred type because it's cheap compared to other

types of scaffoldings and access systems in construction works. It also provides sufficient

stability and strength required for low-rise residential constructions.

The advantage of these scaffolding and access systems is that they provide easy access to

the elevated working platform. This is the major conundrum addressed by timber scaffoldings

because it allows unhindered access to elevated building parts during construction. For instance,

the construction of ceilings and roofings of a single strorey building would use wooden or timber

scaffolding systems. It also provides the perfect balance in construction because it offers a

substantial footing for the elevated framework. Typical example of wooden scaffold in a

construction site is illustrated in teh figure below.

Figure 6: Typical wooden scaffold on site (alamy.com)

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Patented Scaffolds

Patended scaffolds are often constructed out of steel and are outfitted with specialized

scaffolding components such as rigid frames and couplers fitted with nuts and bolts. Because this

sort of scaffolding working platform is mounted on brackets, it may be adjusted to the

appropriate height for the task at hand (Biolek, and Hanák, 2019). These types are common in

residential construction sites because they are readily and easily erected and dismantled, thus

promoting effective time management on site. The installation and dismantling of patented

scaffolds and access systems can be done by semi-skilled labor, allowing them to meet the

standards outlined in work at Height Regulations 2015 document (Pacheco et al., 2019). These

scaffoldings are ready-made scaffoldings that are available to be purchased in this market.

These scaffolds are commonly applied in constructing and repairing low-rise residential

buildings. For instance, they are used in gas fitting on upper floors or windows on heights that

workers could not otherwise reach, painting of external walls, fitting of ceilings, or roofing

activities. Besides an elevated height, patended scaffolds also provide a stable platform to hold

construction tools and materials for the intended work.

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 Figure 7: Typical patented scaffolding (Ilgın et al., 2022)

Steel Scaffoldings

Steel scaffolds and access system is made of galvanized steel tubes connected or fixed

together by nuts, bolts, steel fittings, or couplers to provide an elevated work platform. It is a

common scaffold formwork used in current construction sites since it's easy to erect or dismantle

after work is completed. It is ideal for a wide range of construction projects as galvanized steel

makes the systems the most durable and stable scaffold and access system (Biolek, and Hanák,

2019). The steel tubes are jointed with a durable interlocking system, thus providing a safer and

resilient working platform that can be customized to serve different heights per workers'

specifications. Safety is a major concern on-site; regulations and standards highly recommend

using galvanized steel scaffolds and access systems on construction sites because of the greater

durability, strength, and perfect fire resistance properties of steel (Pacheco et al., 2019).

However, it's the most expensive system compared to other types of scaffolds due to the high

cost of steel metal, especially galvanized steel.

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 Figure 8: Typical scaffold made of steel (Ilgın et al., 2022)

It is applied in a wide range of construction activities such as painting, installing and

fixing windows at elevated heights, fittings of ceilings, roofing, or repairing various components

of buildings (Biolek, and Hanák, 2019). In this system, the work platform is suspended through

cable systems, thus allowing height adjustments as so required by builders. For instance, the

formwork can be used for low-rise and high-rise residential buildings.

Question 3

Construction Waste Reduction Strategies

Construction works involve making or putting up new structures and destroying old

structures (demolition). These two activities are associated with vast amounts of waste

substances that account for approximately 40% of the total landfill (Chi et al. 2020). A large

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portion of waste from the construction sector has become a global concern that threatens the

gains and realization of sustainable development goals. In efforts to mitigate environmental

challenges caused by debris from construction projects, various methods and strategies are

adopted by construction stakeholders to reduce the amount of waste from construction activities

(Balasbaneh et al., 2018). This section highlights some essential methods currently used to

minimize residential project waste.

Green Building Technology

The concept of green building is gaining momentum in the construction and building

sector because of its advantages or benefits to the sector. It offers a sustainable construction

approach in the industry by replacing toxic substances with clean or renewable materials that can

be easily recycled to serve other economic purposes (Wu et al. 2019). The green building

concept concerns better energy efficiency in structures and building and focuses on saving

money on construction projects. Therefore, it emphasizes proper site planning and management

of resources to avoid creating waste during construction processes

Deconstruction Approach

Demolition is part of construction activities that contribute to this sector's high amount of

waste. In other words, demolition refers to destroying existing structures to give way to new

constructions, and in the process, destroyed elements find their way into landfills, resulting in

environmental pollution. Deconstruction is the sustainable method of destroying structures or

buildings (Wu et al. 2019). Builders are currently embracing deconstruction instead of

demolition because it has effectively minimized waste in construction projects.

Deconstruction offers an effective way of managing or minimizing wastes through

selective disassembling of buildings, piece by piece, to remove components with minimal

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destruction and preserve materials for reuse in other construction works. The distinction between

the deconstruction process is that it allows builders to recover materials that can be reused rather

than destroying them to become wastes. Most developed economies have introduced policies that

encourage sustainable practices in construction, such as deconstructions (Wu et al. 2019). For

example, the United States, United Kingdom, and some Australian territories have tax waivers

on companies that embrace deconstruction in their operations.

Proper Planning and Procurement

The best way to reduce waste in a construction project is to avoid wastage in the first

place. Most materials find their way to dumpsites or landfill because they were procured in

excess. Currently, construction companies are using modern techniques such as BIM to help in

the accurate and efficient quotation of building materials to ensure that only what is needed is

procured. In most advanced practices, some companies have agreed with suppliers that allow

them to return unused materials to stores for resale at a commission, thus minimizing waste

caused by over-quotation (Chi et al., 2020). Integrating waste management plans as part of

construction preparations has also proved effective in minimizing waste from construction

projects.

Conclusion
New buildings are created or erected during construction projects, while older ones are

demolished (demolition). Large quantities of waste materials that make up around 40% of the

whole landfill are connected to these two operations. Construction waste is becoming a major

worldwide issue that affects the advancement and achievement of sustainable development

objectives. Construction stakeholders utilize a variety of tactics and strategies to cut down on

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trash from construction operations in an attempt to offset environmental difficulties brought on

by construction project debris.

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hybrid timber structure for low medium cost single-story residential building: Environmental,

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Biolek, V. and Hanák, T., 2019. LCC estimation model: A construction material

perspective. Buildings, 9(8), p.182.

Chi, B., Lu, W., Ye, M., Bao, Z. and Zhang, X., 2020. Construction waste minimization in green

building: A comparative analysis of LEED-NC 2009 certified projects in the US and

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Pacheco, M.B., Smith, B.E., Deig, A. and Amgott, N.A., 2021. Scaffolding multimodal

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 Appendix
Concrete slab

Figure 9: Sketch of concrete slab for ground floor

Plumbing sevices

Figure 10: Sketch of direct water suppy system

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Wall Framing systems

Figure 11: Sketch of a typicla wall framing

Storm water drainage

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 Figure 12: Sketch of ground drainage system (PVC-M Pipes)

Figure 13: Drainage layout (flow of stormwater)

Figure 14: Harvesting of rainwater in stormwater management

21