MACHAKOS UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMNET: SOCIAL SCIENCES

UNIT NAME: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
UNIT CODE: AGE102
YEAH: 2023-2024
LECTURER: POLIVIA OKODE
NAMES ADM NO

I. KENNEDY TAIFA E35-3016-2023

II. JOSEPH KIMANI C01-4114-2023

III. MARY WANJIKU E35-2695-2023

IV. RAYTONE GEKE E37 -3409-2023

V. MAUREEN MBENEKA E54-3417-2023

VI. GLORIA KATUMO E35-0652-2022

VII. STEVE OMWENGA E35-3120-2023

NUMBER ONE

Discuss the origin of the universe using Big Bang theory

The origin of the Earth can be understood within the framework of the Big Bang theory, which

provides a scientific explanation for the formation and development of the universe. Here is a

brief overview of how the Big Bang theory relates to the origin of our planet:

I. THE BIG BANG

According to the Big Bang theory, the universe began approximately 13.8 billion years ago as a

singularity, an infinitesimally small and dense point of energy. This singularity rapidly

expanded in an event known as the Big Bang, resulting in the formation of space, time, matter,

and energy.

II. COSMIC EXPANSION

In the early stages of the universe's expansion, it was extremely hot and dense. As the universe

expanded, it also cooled down. About 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the temperature

dropped enough for protons and electrons to combine, forming neutral hydrogen atoms. This

allowed light to travel freely, resulting in the cosmic microwave background radiation, which is

still detectable today.

 III. FORMATION OF GALAXIES AND STARS

Over time, the expanding universe led to the formation of galaxies, including our own Milky

Way galaxy. Within these galaxies, regions of higher density called protogalactic clouds began to

collapse under the influence of gravity. As these clouds contracted, they gave rise to the

formation of stars, including our Sun.

IV. SOLAR NEBULA

About 4.6 billion years ago, a cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula surrounded the

young Sun. This nebula consisted of various elements and compounds, including hydrogen,

helium, and heavier elements synthesized in previous generations of stars. The solar nebula

began to collapse under gravity, forming a rotating disk.

V. FORMATION OF THE EARTH

Within the rotating disk of the solar nebula, particles collided and coalesced to form

planetesimals, which eventually grew into protoplanets. One such protoplanet was the Earth.

Over millions of years, the Earth's protoplanet underwent further accretion and differentiation,

with denser materials sinking towards the center and lighter materials rising to the surface.
VI. FORMATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND OCEANS

As the Earth continued to evolve, volcanic activity released gases from its interior, contributing

to the formation of the early atmosphere. Water vapor, along with other gases, eventually

condensed and formed the Earth's oceans.

It is important to note that the specific processes and details of Earth's formation are still areas

of ongoing scientific research. The Big Bang theory provides the overarching framework for

understanding the origin of the universe, while subsequent theories and studies help us delve

deeper into the formation of celestial bodies like our Earth.

NUMBER TWO

Analyze the physical features formed by water as an agent of erosion transportation and

deposition

Water is a powerful agent of erosion, transportation, and deposition, shaping the Earth's

surface through various physical features. Let's analyze some of the key features formed by

water in these processes:

 I. RIVER VALLEYS

Rivers are a primary force in shaping landscapes, carving out deep valleys over time. Through

the process of erosion, rushing water wears away the underlying rock and sediment, creating V-

shaped valleys. As water flows downstream, it transports eroded materials and deposits them

further along the river's course.

II. CANYONS

In areas with more resistant rock formations, rivers can cut through the landscape, forming

canyons. Over time, water erosion carves steep, narrow gorges with towering cliffs. Famous

examples include the Grand Canyon in the United States, formed by the erosion of the Colorado

River.

III. WATERFALLS

Waterfalls are formed when rivers encounter steep gradients or resistant rock layers. The force

of water flowing over these areas erodes the softer rock beneath, creating a sudden drop in

elevation. The result is a majestic waterfall, such as Niagara Falls, where the Niagara River

plunges over a cliff.

IV. ALLUVIAL FANS AND DELTAS

When a river's velocity decreases, it deposits sediment it has transported. Alluvial fans are fan-

shaped deposits of sediment that form where a river emerges from a mountainous area onto a

flatter plain. Deltas, on the other hand, form at river mouths where sediment is deposited as

the river enters a larger body of water, like an ocean or lake.

V. FLOODPLAINS

Floodplains are flat, low-lying areas adjacent to rivers that experience periodic flooding. When

rivers overflow their banks during floods, they deposit layers of sediment onto the floodplain.

Over time, these repeated deposits build up fertile soil, making floodplains ideal for agriculture.

VI. KARST LANDSCAPES

In areas with soluble rock, such as limestone, water erosion can create unique features known

as karst landscapes. Underground water dissolves the rock, forming caves, sinkholes, and

underground rivers. Over time, the collapse of underground cavities can lead to the formation

of sinkholes on the surface.

VII. COASTAL FEATURES

Along coastlines, water plays a significant role in shaping the land. Waves erode the shoreline,

forming cliffs, sea stacks, and sea caves. Sediments carried by waves can also be deposited,

creating beaches, barrier islands, and spits.

These are just a few examples of the physical features formed by water as an agent of erosion,

transportation, and deposition. Water's continual movement and interaction with the Earth's

surface contribute to the dynamic nature of our landscapes.

NUMBER THREE

Using appropriate examples discuss the classification of rocks as being igneous sedimentary and

metamorphic

Rocks can be classified into three main types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Let's

explore each type and provide some examples:

1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock material, known as

magma or lava. There are two types of igneous rocks:

I. Intrusive Igneous Rocks

These rocks form when magma cools and solidifies slowly beneath the Earth's surface. The slow

cooling allows for the growth of large mineral crystals. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks

include granite, diorite, and gabbro.

II. Extrusive Igneous Rocks

These rocks form when lava cools and solidifies quickly on the Earth's surface. The rapid cooling

prevents the growth of large crystals, resulting in fine-grained or glassy textures. Examples of

extrusive igneous rocks include basalt, andesite, and obsidian.

2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition, compaction, and cementation of sediments

over time. Sediments can include fragments of pre-existing rocks, organic matter, or chemical

precipitates. There are three main types of sedimentary rocks:

I. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

 These rocks are formed from the accumulation and lithification of rock fragments or sediments.

Examples include sandstone (composed of sand-sized grains), conglomerate (composed of

rounded pebbles), and shale (composed of fine particles).

II. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

These rocks form from the precipitation of minerals from water solutions. Examples include

limestone (composed of calcium carbonate), evaporites (such as rock salt and gypsum), and

chert (composed of silica).

III. Organic Sedimentary Rocks

These rocks are formed from the accumulation of organic material, such as plant remains or

shells. Examples include coal (formed from decaying plant matter) and fossiliferous limestone

(containing abundant fossil remains).

3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks that undergo changes in response to

high temperature, pressure, or chemical activity within the Earth's crust. These changes result in

the recrystallization of minerals, giving rise to new textures and structures. Examples of

metamorphic rocks include:

 I. Marble

Formed from the metamorphism of limestone or dolomite, marble is characterized by its

interlocking crystalline structure and is commonly used in sculpture and architecture.

II. Slate

Derived from the metamorphism of shale or mudstone, slate possesses a fine-grained texture

and excellent splitting properties, making it suitable for roofing and flooring.

III. Quartzite

Quartzite forms from the metamorphism of sandstone, resulting in a hard and durable rock with

a granular texture.

These examples provide an overview of the classification of rocks into igneous, sedimentary,

and metamorphic types. Each rock type undergoes distinct processes and exhibits unique

characteristics, contributing to the diverse geology of our planet.

REFERENCES

1. Goudie A (1989). The nature of the environment. Basil Blackwell Ltd. O.K.
2. Nya Mweru C. K (1980). Rifts and volcanoes. Thomas Nelson & sons Ltd. Nairobi

3. Buckle C. (1978). Landforms in Africa. Methuen. London.