Student Officers: Mihály Jirkovszky-Bari and Alec LeMaire

Table of Contents:
Topic Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..3
Definition of Key Terms…………………………………………………………………… 3
Background Information……………………………………………………………………5
Global Significance…………………………………………………………………………6
Main Issues………………………………………………………………………………… 7
Significant Countries and Organizations Involved………………………………………… 7
Timeline of Key Events……………………………………………………………………. 8
Previous Attempts to Solve the Issue……………………………………………………….10
Possible Solutions………………………………………………………………………….. 10
Useful Links………………………………………………………………………………...11

2
Topic Introduction
The tensions between India and Pakistan are deeply rooted in historical, territorial, and
ideological conflicts, primarily centered around the region of Kashmir. Both countries gained
independence from British rule in 1947, but their relationship has been strained ever since. Issues
such as cross-border terrorism, insurgency, and separatist movements in the region further
exacerbate the tensions. Pakistan accuses India of human rights violations in Kashmir, while
India accuses Pakistan of supporting terrorist groups operating in the region.

Additionally, the nuclear capabilities of both countries add a dangerous dimension to their
rivalry, with any escalation having the potential for catastrophic consequences. Efforts to resolve
the conflicts, including bilateral talks and international mediation, have had limited success, and
the situation remains tense, with periodic outbreaks of violence along the border and in Kashmir.

Definition of Key Terms

To fully understand the tension between India and Pakistan, some key terms must be understood.

Kashmir Region
The Kashmir region, nestled in the northern Indian subcontinent, is embroiled in a protracted
conflict between India and Pakistan since their independence in 1947. This territorial dispute
revolves around historical, religious, and strategic factors. Initially a princely state with a Muslim
majority ruled by a Hindu maharaja, Kashmir became a focal point of contention during
partition. As violence erupted and Pakistani militias invaded, the Maharaja sought Indian
military assistance, leading to the first Indo-Pakistani war. Since then, both nations have claimed
Kashmir in its entirety, with the Line of Control demarcating their respective administered
territories.

Fig. 1: The Kashmir Region

3
The Pulwama Attack
The Pulwama attack occurred on February 14, 2019, in the Pulwama district of Jammu and
Kashmir, India. A convoy of vehicles carrying Indian security personnel was targeted by a
suicide bomber belonging to the Pakistan-based militant group Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM). The
attacker rammed an explosive-laden vehicle into one of the buses, resulting in a massive
explosion.

The attack resulted in the deaths of 40 Indian Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) personnel
and injured many others. It was one of the deadliest attacks on Indian security forces in Kashmir
in decades. Following the attack, India accused Pakistan of supporting and harboring terrorist
groups like JeM, which it believes orchestrated the attack. The incident escalated tensions
further.

Line of Control (LoC):

This military control line between India and Pakistan is a line that does not constitute a legally
recognized international boundary but serves as the de facto border. It was established as part of
the Simla Agreement at the end of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Both nations agreed to
rename the ceasefire line as the "Line of Control" and pledged to respect it without prejudice to
their respective positions. Apart from minor details, the line is roughly the same as the original
1949 cease-fire line.

Fig. 2: The Line of Control

Insurgency
Armed rebellion or uprising against the government, often characterized by guerrilla warfare
tactics, which has been prevalent in parts of Kashmir.

4
Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM)
JeM is a Pakistan-based militant organization with a primary objective of separating Kashmir
from India and establishing an Islamic state. It was founded in 2000 by Maulana Masood Azhar,
a prominent militant leader who was released from Indian captivity in exchange for hostages
aboard an Indian Airlines flight hijacked to Kandahar, Afghanistan, in 1999.

JeM gained notoriety for carrying out numerous terrorist attacks in the region, including the
attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, which escalated tensions between India and
Pakistan to the brink of war. The group is also responsible for the deadly Pulwama attack in
February 2019, where a suicide bomber targeted a convoy of Indian security personnel, resulting
in the deaths of 40 CRPF personnel.

Siachen Glacier
It is the highest battleground on earth, where India and Pakistan have fought intermittently since
13 April 1984. Both countries maintain a permanent military presence in the region at a height of
over 6,000 meters.

Nuclear Deterrence
The concept that both India and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons serves as a deterrent against
large-scale conventional warfare, preventing the escalation of conflicts to a nuclear level. If such
weapons of mass destruction are used then the conflict will tip over the point of no return and
both countries will see great and possibly unrepairable damage. This idea keeps the parties
involved at bay and heavily discourages the use of nuclear weapons.

Background Information
The division of British India in 1947 is the historical source of the current tensions between India
and Pakistan. The partition itself, based on religious lines with the creation of a Hindu-majority
India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan, resulted in massive population displacements, communal
violence, and deep-seated resentment. However, the specific tensions between the two countries
began shortly after independence and partition.

One of the earliest sources of conflict was the dispute over the princely state of Jammu and
Kashmir. The partition plan allowed princely states to accede to either India or Pakistan based on
geographical contiguity and the wishes of the population. In the case of Kashmir, the Maharaja,
Hari Singh, chose to remain independent initially, leading to a Pakistani tribal invasion in
October 1947. This invasion prompted the Maharaja to seek military assistance from India,
resulting in the signing of the Instrument of Accession with India.

This move triggered the first Indo-Pakistani war in 1947-48 over Kashmir, which ended in a
ceasefire brokered by the United Nations. However, the ceasefire line (later termed the Line of

5
Control) did not resolve the underlying territorial disputes and led to a prolonged conflict over
the region.

Subsequent tensions arose from a series of issues, including water-sharing disputes (particularly
regarding the Indus River waters), border skirmishes, the status of minorities in both countries
and ideological differences. The nuclearization of both nations further escalated tensions,
especially following nuclear tests conducted by India in 1974 and by Pakistan in 1998.

Cross-border terrorism, especially in the context of the Kashmir conflict, has been a major point
of contention, with India accusing Pakistan of supporting and sponsoring militant groups. These
groups have been involved in various attacks in Indian-administered Kashmir and other parts of
India, leading to retaliatory measures and further exacerbating tensions.

Global Significance
The conflict between India and Pakistan holds global significance due to several intertwined
factors. Firstly, both countries possess nuclear weapons, making the region one of the most
precarious nuclear flashpoints globally. Any escalation in tensions or conflict between them
raises profound concerns about the potential use of nuclear weapons, with catastrophic
consequences not only for the region but also for global security.

Secondly, the conflict provides fertile ground for extremist groups and terrorist organizations to
operate, exacerbating regional instability and posing a threat beyond South Asia. Groups like
Jaish-e-Mohammed and Lashkar-e-Taiba, with ties to the India-Pakistan conflict, have been
implicated in terrorist attacks not only in the region but also in other parts of the world.
Moreover, the conflict intersects with broader geopolitical interests involving major powers such
as the United States, China, and Russia, which often seek to influence the resolution of disputes
between India and Pakistan.

Additionally, the conflict disrupts regional economic cooperation and development efforts,
hindering trade, investment, and infrastructure projects that could benefit both countries and the
wider region. Lastly, it leads to internal displacement and forced migration, potentially
exacerbating the humanitarian crisis and causing a larger refugee exodus, impacting neighboring
countries and beyond.

Thus, the India-Pakistan conflict is not solely a regional issue but also a matter of global concern,
necessitating concerted efforts from the international community to promote dialogue,
de-escalation, and a peaceful resolution.

6
Main Issues
Kashmir Dispute
The primary and most longstanding issue between India and Pakistan is the dispute over the
region of Kashmir. Both countries claim Kashmir in its entirety but control only parts of it, with
India administering Jammu and Kashmir, and Pakistan controlling Azad Kashmir and
Gilgit-Baltistan. The unresolved status of Kashmir has led to several wars and numerous border
skirmishes, making it a flashpoint in the region.

Other Border Disputes

Apart from the Line of Control in Kashmir, India and Pakistan have unresolved border issues in
other areas, including the Sir Creek marshlands and parts of the Punjab region. These disputes
have led to occasional clashes and ongoing diplomatic tensions.

Cross-Border Terrorism
Pakistan has been accused of supporting and sponsoring militant groups that carry out terrorist
activities in Indian-administered Kashmir and other parts of India. The use of terrorism as a tool
of state policy has fueled mistrust and led to retaliatory measures and security challenges.

Nuclear Arms Race

Both India and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons, making South Asia one of the most volatile
regions in terms of nuclear capabilities. The nuclearization of the two countries has raised
concerns about the potential for a catastrophic conflict and has necessitated international efforts
to promote nuclear restraint and confidence-building measures.

Water Sharing and Resource Management

The sharing of river waters, particularly the Indus River and its tributaries, has been a
contentious issue between India and Pakistan. The Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 regulates the
distribution of water resources but has faced challenges and disputes over implementation,
especially during periods of heightened tensions.

Political and Ideological Differences

The two countries have divergent political ideologies and national narratives, contributing to
mutual mistrust and hostility. Historical grievances, including the legacy of partition, have also
played a role in shaping their respective worldviews and approaches to their relations.

Significant Countries and Organizations Involved

India
As one of the primary parties in the conflict, India has consistently asserted its sovereignty over
the entire Kashmir region. It has faced security challenges due to cross-border attacks and
militancy.

7
Pakistan
Pakistan claims the Kashmir Valley and has supported the Kashmiri separatist movement. It has
been accused of sponsoring militant groups that carry out terrorist activities in
Indian-administered Kashmir.

United States
The United States has historically been involved in mediating between India and Pakistan during
times of heightened tensions. The United States has been deeply involved in the India-Pakistan
conflict due to several reasons. It views India as a long-term partner to counterbalance China’s
rise and considers Pakistan essential for resolving the Afghanistan conflict. It has also been a
major supplier of military aid to Pakistan, although this relationship has had its ups and downs
based on Pakistan's actions and policies.

China
China has close diplomatic and economic ties with Pakistan and has often provided political
support to Pakistan. After the 1962 Sino-Indian War, Pakistan surrendered the Trans-Karakoram
tract to China. China’s strategic interests extend beyond borders; it seeks to safeguard its
investments in the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which passes through
Pakistan-administered Kashmir. Moreover, China’s diplomatic maneuvers often influence the
balance of power between India and Pakistan. As tensions persist, China’s role as a mediator and
its economic and military ties with both nations remain pivotal in shaping the trajectory of this
conflict.

The UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP)

UNMOGIP is a peacekeeping mission established by the United Nations Security Council
(UNSC) to monitor and observe the ceasefire line in Jammu and Kashmir, known as the Line of
Control (LoC), as well as the working boundary between India and Pakistan. UNMOGIP's
primary mandate is to supervise the ceasefire agreement between India and Pakistan, which was
established in 1949 after the first Indo-Pakistani war.

Timeline of Key Events:

1947 - India and Pakistan gain independence from Britain

1947/48 - The first Indo-Pakistani war over Kashmir is fought

1957 - India, approves its 1957 constitution, which begins to refer to Kashmir as an integral part
of the Indian union

1964 - Following the failure of the 1963 talks, Pakistan refers the Kashmir case to the UN
Security Council

8
1965 - The second Indo-Pakistani war

1966 - Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan vow to
restore economic and diplomatic relations

1971 - The third Indo-Pakistani war

1972 - Signing of the Simla Agreement which establishes the Line of Control

1974 - The first Indian nuclear test described as a “peaceful nuclear explosive” by India

1988 - The two countries sign an agreement that neither side will attack the other’s nuclear
installations or facilities.

1998 - India detonates five nuclear devices at Pokhran. Pakistan responds by detonating six
nuclear devices of its own in the Chaghai Hills. The tests result in international sanctions being
placed on both countries.

1999 - Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif
sign the Lahore Declaration

2002 - President Musharraf pledges that Pakistan will combat extremism on its own soil, but
affirms that the country has a right to Kashmir

2007 - The train service between India and Pakistan (the Samjhauta Express) is bombed near
Panipat. Sixty-eight people are killed, and dozens injured.

2008 - In October, cross-LoC trade commences, though it is limited to 21 items and can take
place only two days a week.

2010 - In January, Pakistani and Indian forces exchanged fire across the LoC in Kashmir, the
latest in a string of such incidents that have led to rising tension in the area.

2014 - Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi holds talks with Pakistan’s Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif in New Delhi where both sides express willingness to begin a new era of bilateral relations

2019 - India conducts air attacks against JeM training camps, killing “a very large number of
terrorists”

9
Previous Attempts to Solve the Issue
Karachi Agreement
The Karachi Agreement, signed in 1949 between India and Pakistan with United Nations
mediation, aimed to establish a ceasefire in the Jammu and Kashmir region. This agreement led
to the creation of a temporary ceasefire line, later known as the Line of Control, to delineate
areas under Indian and Pakistani control. UNCIP monitored the ceasefire and promoted peaceful
settlement principles, but the agreement did not resolve the underlying Kashmir dispute.

Tashkent Agreement
Following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and
Pakistani President Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement in January 1966 under Soviet
mediation. The agreement focused on restoring diplomatic relations, withdrawing forces to
pre-war positions, and resolving disputes through peaceful means.

Simla Agreement:
After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which led to the creation of Bangladesh, Indian Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto signed the Simla Agreement
in July 1972. The agreement aimed to establish principles of peaceful coexistence, bilateral
negotiations, and resolving disputes through dialogue and mutual cooperation. It also
emphasized the LoC as the de facto border in Kashmir.

Possible Solutions
Resolving the conflict between Pakistan and India requires multifaceted comprehensive
approaches addressing various underlying issues.

Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs)

Implementing CBMs such as cross-border trade, people-to-people exchanges, and cultural
initiatives can help foster trust and reduce tensions between the two countries. Societies of both
nations understanding each other and not alienating each other is the hothouse of peace.

Track-II Diplomacy
Involving informal dialogues and discussions between non-governmental actors, academics, and
experts from both countries, can complement official diplomatic efforts and generate creative
solutions to the conflict.

Allowing Independence
A referendum could be held in the Kashmir region’s districts where the local public could decide
whether they want to unify with Pakistan or India or become a separate entity. Providing a choice
to the public would align with the governmental system of both countries and could end the
long-lasting conflict once and for all before tensions escalate further

10
Useful Links
● https://armscontrolcenter.org/history-of-conflict-in-india-and-pakistan/
● https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/3/1/timeline-india-pakistan-relations
● https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-between-india-and-pakistan
● https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/12/11/india-pakistan-complex-rivalry-mohan-conflict-poli
tics/
● https://www.ipcs.org/comm_select.php?articleNo=569
● https://www.bbc.com/news/10537286
● Conflict Between India and Pakistan | Global Conflict Tracker (cfr.org)
● India-Pakistan relations – The Diplomat (not an article but a collection of articles that
pertain to anything India-Pakistan relations)

The report was last updated on March 17, 2024, and all information is according to that date.

11