Pesticide 1 4

Chemical Pesticides
Pesticides are a group of chemicals used for the destruction of insects, weeds, fungi,
bacteria, etc. They are generally called insecticides, fungicides, bactericides,
herbicides or rodenticides. Most of the pesticides have the ability to destroy a wide
variety of pests or weeds, but some are developed against specific pests or
pathogens. Most of these chemicals are designed in such a way as to disturb the
physiological activities of the target organism, leading to dysfunction and reduced
vitality. Pesticide residues may constitute a significant source of contamination of
environmental factors such as air, water and soil. This phenomenon could become a
continuous threat to the co-existence of plant and animal communities of the
ecosystem. Problems caused by pest lead to loss of about one third of the world’s
agricultural production every year. The greater use of pesticides for high agricultural
production has led to increased pollution of environmental compartments – soil,
water and air. The characteristics of pesticides, such as high lipophilicity,
bioaccumulation, long half-life and potential of long range transport, have increased
the chances of contaminating the air, water and soil, even after many years of
application.
Classification of pesticides based on chemical nature
1. Organochlorines: DDT,DDD, Dicofol, Eldrin, Dieldrin, Chlorobenziate,
Lindane, BHC, Methoxychloro Aldrin, Chlordane, Heptaclor, Endosufan,
Isodrin, Isobenzan, Toxaphene, Chloro propylate
2. Organophosphates: Dimefox, Mipafox, Methyl Parathion, Ronnel,
enitrothion, Bidrin, Phorate, Fenthion, caumphos, Abate, Dichlorovas,
Diptrex, Phosphomidon, Demetox, Oxydemeton-methyl, Malathion,
Dimethoate, Trichlorofan
3. Carbamates : Methyl
Carbaryl, Carbanolate, Prupoxur, Dimethan, Dimetilan, Isolan, Carbofuran, Pyrolan,
Aminocarb, Aldicarb,
Thio
Vernolate, Pebulate, Diallate, Monilate, Butylate, Cycloate, Trillate, Thiourea
Dithio
Methan, Thiram, Ferban, Amoban, Naban, Zineb, Maneb, Ziram Polyran, Dithane M-
45
4. Pyrethroids : Allethrin, Bonthrin, Dimethrin, Tetramethrin, Ptrethrin,
CyclethrinFurethrin, Fenevelerate, Alphamethrin, Decamethrin, Cypermethrin
5. Phenyl amides (Fungicide): Carbanilates

Barban, Carbetamide, Chlororprofan, Prophan, Phenyl Urea, Fenuron, Monuron,
Diuron,Flumeturon, Chloroxuron, Neburon, Bromuron
Acylanalide
Propanil, Solan, Dicryl, Karsil, Propachlor, Alachlor, Butachlor
Toluidines
Trifluralin, Dipropanil, Benefin, Oryzalin, Isopropanil, Nitralin
Acetamide
Diphenamid
6. Phenoxyalkonates (Herbicide): 2,4-D(2,4 Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid),2,4 5
T(2,4 5 Trichloro Phenoxy acetic acid) Dichloroprop, Mecoprop, Erbin, Sesone
7. Trazines (Herbicide): Atrazine, Simazine, Ametryn, Atratone, Chlorazine,

Cynazine, Cyprazine, Metribuzin, Propazine, Turbutryn, Simetryn
8. Benzoic acid (Herbicide): Dicamba, Dichlorobenil, Chloroambin, Tricamba,

Neptalan, Bromoxynil
9. Phtalimides (Fungicide): Captan, Diflotan, Folpet
10.Dipyrids (Herbicide): Paraquat, Diaquat
11. Others Pentachlorophenol, Floroacetate, Phenyl mercuric acetate, Ethyl
mercuric Phosphate,Methyl mercuric chloride, Sodium arsenate, Calcium arsenate,
Lead arsenate, Cacodylic acid, Aluminium phosphide, Zinc phosphide
Organochlorines (OC)
• Organochlorines (OC) are a group of chlorinated compounds widely used as
pesticides. These chemicals belong to the class of persistent organic pollutants
(POPs) with high persistence in the environment. OC insecticides were earlier
successfully used in control of malaria and typhus, yet they are banned in most of
the advanced countries. The review statistics on the use of different pesticides
shows that 40% of all pesticides used belong to the organochlorine class of
chemicals .Due to their low cost and the need against various pests,
organochlorine insecticides such as DDT, hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), aldrin and
dieldrin are among the most widely used pesticides in developing countries of
Asia. The basic characteristics of organochlorine pesticides are high persistence,
low polarity, low aqueous solubility and high lipid solubility. Organochlorine
pesticides can enter the environment after pesticide applications, polluted wastes
discarded into landfills, and discharges from industrial units that synthesize these
chemicals. They are volatile and stable; some can adhere to the soil and air, thus
increasing the chances of high persistence in the environment, and are identified as
agents of chronic exposure to animals and humans.
A comprehensive summary of major organochlorine pesticides with their chemical name,
structure, toxicity, use and persistence in environmental medium as follows:
1. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) C14H9Cl5: DDT, is a colorless, tasteless, and
almost odorless crystalline chemical compound.
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 113–130 mg/kg, Dermal: 2510 mg/kg, Mice Oral: 150–300 mg/kg,
Gunia Pigs Oral: 300 mg/kg, Rabbit Oral: 400 mg/kg
Structure: Use: Acaricide Insecticide
Persistence in environment:High Persistence. Half life: 2–15 years
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Moderately hazardous
Mechanism of insecticide action: In insects, DDT opens sodium ion channels in neurons,
causing them to fire spontaneously, which leads to spasms and eventual death. Insects with
certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides.
Biological Effect: Human: Prickling sensation of the mouth, nausea, dizziness, confusion,
headache, lethargy, incoordination, vomiting, fatigue, tremors in the extremities, anorexia,
anemia, muscular weakness, hyperexcitability, anxiety, and nervous tension. In Birds: Egg shell
thinning and in Fish: Affects membrane function and enzymes
2. 1,1-dichloro-2,2bis (p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDD)
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 4000 mg/kg
Structure:
Use: Insecticide
Persistence in environment:High Persistence Half

life: 5–10 years
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50:

Acute hazard is unlikely
3. Dicofol C14H9Cl5O: Dicofol is an organochlorine pesticide that is chemically related to
DDT. Dicofol is a acaricide that is very effective against spider mite. Pure dicofol is a white
crystalline solid. Technical dicofol is a red-brown or amber viscous liquid with an odor like
fresh-cut hay.
Solubility: It is stable under cool and dry conditions, is practically insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents. Solubility: 0.8 mg/l (25 °C) in water. Melting Point: 78.5 - 79.5
°C for pure dicofol, 50 °C for technical dicofol
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 684–1495 mg/kg, Rabbit Oral: 1810 mg/kg, Dermal: 2.1 g/kg
Structure: Use: Acaricide. It is formulated as emulsifiable concentrates, wettable
powders, dusts, ready-to-use liquids, and aerosol sprays.
Persistence in environment:Moderate persistence Half life: 60 days
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Moderately hazardous
Biological Effect:
Rats: Decrease in body weight and acute neurotoxicity
Dogs: Inhibition of ACTH (Adrenal cortical tropic hormone)
4. Endrin C12H8Cl6O : It was primarily used as an insecticide, as well as a rodenticide
and piscicide. It is a colourless, odorless solid, although commercial samples are often off-
white.
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 3 mg/kg, Dermal: 15 mg/kg, Mouse Oral: 1.37g/kg, Rabbit Oral:
60–94 mg/kg
Structure: Use: Acaricide. Endrin was formulated as emulsifiable concentrates (ECs),
wettable powders (WPs), granules, field strength dusts (FSDs), and pastes.
The product could then be applied by aircraft or by handheld sprayers in its
various formulations. Exposure to endrin can occur by inhalation, ingestion
of substances containing the compound, or by skin contact. In addition to
inhalation and skin contact, infants can be exposed by ingesting the breast
milk of an exposed woman. In utero, fetuses are exposed by way of the
placenta if the mother has been exposed.
Persistence in environment:Moderate Persistence Half life: 1Day to 12
Years
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Highly hazardous
5. Toxaphene (Camphechlor) C10H10Cl8
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 80–293 mg/kg, Dogs: 25 mg/kg
Structure: Use: Acaricide, Insecticide

Persistence in environment:Moderate persistence Half life: 11 years
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Slightly hazardous

6. Endosulfan C9H6Cl6O3S: Although classified as a yellow label (highly toxic) pesticide by
the Central Insecticides Board, India is one of the largest producers and the largest consumer
of endosulfan in the world.
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 18 to 220 mg/kg, Dermal: 74 mg/kg, Rabbits Dermal: 200–359
mg/kg, Ducks Oral: 33 mg/kg Use: Acaricide, Insecticides
Persistence in environment:Moderate Persistence Half life
Structure:
Alpha Isomer:35days
Beta Isomer:150days
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Highly hazardous
Biological Effect:
Human: Decreases the white blood cell count and macrophage migration, adverse effects on
humoral and cell-mediated immune system. Affects semen quality, sperm count,
spermatogonial cells, sperm morphology and other defects in male sex hormones DNA
damage and mutation
Rats: Immunosuppression, neurological disorders, congenital birth defects, chromosomal
abnormalities, mental retardation, impaired learning and memory loss and
glomerulonephritis
They have a related chemical structure, showing chlorine substituted
aliphatic or aromatic rings. Due to their structural resemblances, these
compounds share certain physicochemical characteristics such as
persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity. One basic character that they
share across the spectrum is persistence, where persistence is defined
as half-life greater than two months in water or six months in soil
sediment. The persistence of OC compounds varies from moderate
persistence with half-life of approximately 60 days to high persistence
with half-life up to 10–15 years. The most commonly used pesticide in
agricultural practice is dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), which is
moderately hazardous, with high persistence and a half-life of 2–15
years. The use of DDT is now banned in many countries but it is illegally
used in most of the developing countries. This applies also to
endosulphan, an insecticide which is highly hazardous and has moderate
persistence with a half-life of fifty days and is used in the production of
cashew.
Organophosphates Insecticides
Organophosphates are a group of human-made chemicals that
poison insects and mammals. Organophosphates are the most
widely used insecticides. Its make up about 50% of the killing
agents in chemical pesticides. They are used in agriculture, the
home, gardens, and veterinary practice.
Organophosphate insecticides are one type of pesticide that works
by damaging an enzyme in the body called acetylcholinesterase.
This enzyme is critical for controlling nerve signals in the body. The
damage to this enzyme kills pests and may cause unwanted side
effects in exposed humans.
Different Organophosphates group of Insecticides are as follows:
Malathion, parathion, diazinon, fenthion, dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos,
ethion etc
Parathion: Parathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion and
locally known as "Folidol", is an organophosphate insecticide and acaricide. It
was originally developed by IG Farben in the 1940s. It is highly toxic to non-
target organisms, including humans, so its use has been banned or restricted
in most countries.
Properties: When pure, parathion is a white crystalline solid. It is commonly
distributed as a brown liquid that smells of rotting eggs or garlic. The insecticide
is somewhat stable, although it darkens when exposed to sunlight.
Synthesis: Parathion is synthesized from diethyl dithiophosphoric acid
(C2H5O)2PS2H by chlorination to generate diethylthiophosphoryl chloride
((C2H5O)2P(S)Cl), and then the chloride is treated with sodium 4-
nitrophenolate (the sodium salt of 4-nitrophenol).
2 (C2H5O)2P(S)SH + 3 Cl2 → 2 (C2H5O)2P(S)Cl + S2Cl2 + 2 HCl

(C2H5O)2P(S)Cl + NaOC6H4NO2 → (C2H5O)2P(S)OC6H4NO2 + NaCl
Applications and dose: As a pesticide, parathion is generally applied
by spraying. It is often applied to cotton, rice and fruit trees. The usual
concentrations of ready-to-use solutions are 0.05 to 0.1%. The chemical
is banned for use on many food crops.
Insecticidal activity and Mode of action: Parathion is a cholinesterase
inhibitor. It generally disrupts the nervous system by inhibiting
acetylcholinesterase. It is absorbed via skin, mucous membranes, and
orally. Absorbed parathion is rapidly metabolized to paraoxon.
Safety: Paraoxon exposure can result in headaches, convulsions, poor
vision, vomiting, abdominal pain, severe diarrhea, unconsciousness,
tremor, dyspnea, and finally lung-edema as well as respiratory arrest.
Symptoms of poisoning are known to last for extended periods,
sometimes months. The most common and very specific antidote is
atropine, in doses of up to 100 mg daily.
Malathion is an organophosphate insecticide which acts as an
acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.
Physical / Chemical Properties:
➢ Malathion is a colorless to amber liquid with a skunk- or garlic-like odor.
➢ Molecular weight: 330.4 g/mol
➢ Solubility (water) : 145 mg/L
➢ Soil Sorption Coefficient (Koc) : 30, 93-1800 depending on soil type and environmental conditions.
Uses:
➢ Malathion is a broad-spectrum insecticide used to control a variety of outdoor insects in both
agricultural and residential settings. Malathion is registered for use on food, feed, and
ornamental crops and in mosquito, boll weevil and fruit fly eradication
➢ Malathion is also an ingredient in shampoos to control head lice.
➢ Signal words for products containing malathion may range from Caution to Danger. The
signal word reflects the combined toxicity of the active ingredient and other ingredients in
the product.
Mode of Action:
Target Organisms: Malathion is toxic via skin contact, ingestion, and inhalation
exposure.
Malathion and other organophosphate insecticides bind to the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at nerve endings throughout the bodies of insects and
other organisms. Under normal circumstances, AChE binds to the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (ACh) at the nerve junction, effectively ending the stimulation of the
next neuron. When AChE is bound by malathion's metabolite malaoxon, ACh
accumulates at the nerve junction and results in overstimulation of the nervous
system.
Malaoxon is considered to be 22 times more toxic than the parent malathion from
acute dietary exposure and 33 times more toxic by all routes of exposure from
short-term and medium-term exposures. The organophosphate pesticides,
including malathion, share a common mode of action. Exposure to multiple
organophosphates can lead to additive toxicity. However, the different
organophosphates vary widely in their potency and how well they are absorbed by
the body depending on the route of exposure.
Mode of Action:
Non-target Organisms
Acetylcholinesterase is found in mammals, amphibians, fish, reptiles, and
birds. In these organisms, the binding of AChE with malathion allows the
accumulation of ACh at the nerve junction. This accumulation of ACh leads to
overstimulation of glandular cells, autonomic ganglia, the central nervous
system, and both smooth and skeletal muscles.
Uptake and metabolism of organophosphates such as malathion are similar in
insects and mammals.
Plants metabolize malathion to malaoxon although this appears to be a minor
pathway, and maloaxon is rapidly eliminated. Malathion is not expected to be
toxic to plants or aquatic algae because its mode of action targets nervous
systems.
Acute Toxicity:
Oral
Malathion is very low in toxicity when ingested. The acute rat LD50 is 5400
mg/kg in males and 5700 mg/kg in females. The low toxicity is due to rapid
carboxylesterase enzyme metabolism of malathion. The acute LD50 in mice
ranges from 400-4000 mg/kg.
Dermal
•Malathion is low in toxicity when applied to the skin. The acute dermal LD50 in
rats is >2000 mg/kg.
In a skin-irritation study, malathion caused slight skin irritation in rabbits.
In an eye-irritation study with rabbits, malathion caused slight eye irritation that
cleared within 7 days.
Inhalation
•Malathion is very low in toxicity when inhaled, with an acute LC50 in rats of
>5.2 mg/L
Parathion methyl, or methyl parathion: Methyl parathion is an insecticide and acaricide used to control
boll weevils and many biting or sucking insect pests of agricultural crops. It kills insects by contact, stomach and
respiratory action. Methyl parathion is available in dust, emulsifiable concentrate, ULV liquid, microencapsules
and wettable powder formulations. Methyl parathion is one of a class of insecticides referred to as
organophosphates. These chemicals act by interfering with the activities of cholinesterase, an enzyme that is
essential for the proper working of the nervous systems of humans, animals and insects.
Properties: Pure methyl parathion is a white crystalline solid with a characteristic odor of rotten eggs or garlic.
Technical product is light to dark tan with about 80% purity. Methyl parathion is hydrolyzed by, and therefore
not compatible with, alkaline materials.
H20 solubility: 55 - 60 mg/l at 20 degrees C
Solubility in other solvents: Soluble in dichloromethane, 2-propanol, toluene, and most organic
solvents.
Slightly soluble in aliphatic hydrocarbons, and in light petroleum and
mineral oils. Nearly insoluble in n-hexane
Melting point: 35 - 36 degrees C (97 degrees F)
Boiling point: 143 degrees C; 228 degrees F (109 degrees C) at 0.05 mm Hg
Decomposition temperature: 100 degrees C
Flashpoint: 42 degrees C
TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS: ACUTE TOXICITY
Methyl parathion is highly toxic by inhalation and ingestion, and moderately toxic by
dermal adsorption. As with all organophosphates, methyl parathion is readily absorbed
through the skin. Skin which has come in contact with this material should be washed
immediately with soap and water and all contaminated clothing should be removed.
Accidental skin and inhalation exposure to methyl parathion have caused human
fatalities. Methyl parathion may cause contact burns to the skin or eyes . Because
methyl parathion has a short half-life (1 hour on cotton) when applied to crops, the risk
of exposure to agricultural workers is low. Factory workers who handle quantities of
concentrated methyl parathion are at a higher risk. Exposure may occur during mixing,
spraying or application of methyl parathion, during cleaning and repair of equipment
or during early re-entry into fields . Persons with respiratory ailments, recent exposure
to cholinesterase inhibitors, cholinesterase impairment, or liver malfunction are at
increased risk from exposure to methyl parathion. High environmental temperatures or
exposure of the chemical to visible or UV light may increase its toxicity.
The amount of a chemical that is lethal to one-half (50%) of experimental
animals fed the material is referred to as its acute oral lethal dose fifty, or LD50.
The oral LD50 for methyl parathion in rats is 18 to 50 mg/kg, in mice is 14.5 to
19.5 mg/kg, in rabbits is 420 mg/kg, in guinea pigs is 1270 mg/kg, and in dogs is
90 mg/kg. The dermal LD50 in rats is 63 to 491 mg/kg, in mice is 1200 mg/kg,
and in rabbits is 300 mg/kg
The lethal concentration fifty, or LC50, is that concentration of a chemical in air
or water that kills half of the experimental animals exposed to it for a set time
period. The 4-hour inhalation LC50 for methyl parathion in rats is 34 mg/m3,
and in mice is 120 mg/m3.
Carbamate pesticides
Carbamates
Carbamates are also used extensively as pesticides. Their mechanism of action,
like that of OPs, is inhibition of AChE. The toxicity of the carbamate compounds
varies with the molecular structure, but in general the AChE inhibition is of shorter
duration than that of OPs. The severity and duration of toxicity are accordingly
less. Acute toxicity from carbamate exposure produces symptoms identical to OP
toxicity. The carbamate ester derivatives, used as insecticides (and nematocides),
are generally stable and have a low vapour pressure and low water solubility.
Aldicarb (Temik), carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin), ethienocarb, fenobucarb,
oxamyl, and methomyl etc are underCarbamate insecticides. These insecticides
kill insects by reversibly inactivating the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. The
organophosphate pesticides also inhibit this enzyme, although irreversibly, and
cause a more severe form of cholinergic poisoning.
Fenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormone mimic, rather
than inactivating acetylcholinesterase.The insect repellent icaridin is a substituted
carbamate.
1. Carbofuran is an odorless white crystalline solid. Contact with skin may burn
skin and eyes. When exposed to heat or flames it may emit toxic oxides of
nitrogen.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Technical carbofuran is a white crystalline solid with a melting point of 153-154
degrees C and a vapor pressure of 2 x 10(-5) mm Hg at 33 C. Solubility in water is
700 ppm. Other solubilities include: 30% in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, 25% in
dimethyl sulfoxide, 15% in acetone, 14% in acetonitrile, 12% in methylene
chloride, 9% in cyclohexanone, and 4% in benzene.
Mode of Action: Carbofuran is a broad spectrum carbamate pesticide that kills

insects, mites and nematodes on contact or after ingestion. It is used against soil
and foliar pests of field, fruit, vegetable and forest crops. Carbofuran is available in
liquid and granular formulationsAs with other carbamate compounds, carbofuran's
cholinesterase- inhibiting effect is short-term and reversible.
Symptoms of carbofuran poisoning include: nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps,
sweating, diarrhea, excessive salivation, weakness, imbalance, blurring of vision,
breathing difficulty, increased blood pressure or 'hypertension,' and lack of control
of urine or feces release, referred to as 'incontinence.' Death may result from
respiratory system failure associated with carbofuran exposure.
Carbamates generally are excreted rapidly and do not accumulate in mammalian
tissue. If exposure does not continue, cholinesterase inhibition reverses rapidly. The
oral LD50 for rats is 5 mg/kg, for mice is 2 mg/kg, and for dogs is 19 mg/kg. The
dermal LD50 for rabbits is 885 mg/kg .
The 4-hour LC50 for inhalation of carbofuran in guinea pigs is 43 mg/m3. The
LC50 for rats is 85 mg/L and 52 mg/L for dogs .
Effect on Environmental
- Carbofuran degrades fairly slowly in non-sterile, neutral, or acid aerobic soils,

with half-lives ranging from 1-8 weeks. It is more stable in sterile soil, and unstable
under alkaline conditions. Under anaerobic conditions, carbofuran is more stable
and may take twice as long to degrade. The major degradates of concern are the
3-hydroxyl carbamate and 7-phenol products resulting from hydrolysis. The
metabolites of carbofuran are less toxic than the parent compound.
- Carbofuran is mobile in soil, particularly sandy soil with high percolation rate.
Ecological Characteristics
- Acute avian oral toxicity: LD50 90-500 mg/kg
- Avian subacute dietary toxicity: LD50 16-1104 ppm
- Freshwater fish acute toxicity: LC50 94-2859 ppb
- Acute toxicity for freshwater invertebrates: 9.8-38.6 ppb
- Carbofuran is characterized as very highly toxic to coldwater and warmwater fish,
highly toxic to freshwater invertebrates, and very highly toxic to birds.
2. Carbaryl (1-naphthyl methylcarbamate) is a white crystalline solid
commonly sold under the brand name Sevin. It is a wide-spectrum
carbamate insecticide which controls over 100 species of insects on citrus,
fruit, cotton, forests, lawns, nuts, ornamentals, shade trees, and other crops,
as well as on poultry, livestock and pets. It is also used as a molluscicide
and an acaricide. Carbaryl works whether it is ingested into the stomach of
the pest or absorbed through direct contact. The chemical name for carbaryl
is 1- naphthol N-methylcarbamate.
Carbaryl is formulated as a solid which varies from colorless to white to
gray, depending on the purity of the compound. The crystals are odorless.
This chemical is stable to heat, light and acids under storage conditions. It is
non-corrosive to metals, packaging materials, or application equipment. It is
found in all types of formulations including baits, dusts, wettable powder,
granules, oil, molassas, aqueous dispersions and suspensions
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Carbaryl is a solid which varies from colorless to
white or gray, depending on the purity of the compound. The crystals are
odorless. Carbaryl is stable to heat, light and acids. It is not stable under
alkaline conditions. It is non-corrosive to metals, packaging materials or
application equipment.
Solubility in water: 0.005 g/100 g (20 degrees C), 0.004 g/100 g (30
degrees C)
Solubility in solvents: Carbaryl is soluble in ethanol, petroleum ether,
diethyl ether,and chloroform; moderately soluble in polar solvents such as
acetone, dimethyl sulfoxide, mixed cresols, and cyclohexanone.
Melting point: 145 degrees C
TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS
ACUTE TOXICITY
The oral LD50 of carbaryl ranges from 250 mg/kg to 850 mg/kg for rats, and from
100 mg/kg to 650 mg/kg for mice. The inhalation LC50 for rats is 0,005 to 0.023
mg/kg . Low doses can cause minor skin and eye irritation in rabbits, whose dermal
LD50 has been measured at greater than 2,000 mg/kg. Technical carbaryl has little
potential for skin or eye irritation.
It can produce adverse effects in humans by skin contact, inhalation or ingestion.
The symptoms of acute toxicity are typical of the other carbamates. Direct contact
of the skin or eyes with moderate levels of this pesticide can cause burns. Inhalation
or ingestion of very large amounts can be toxic to the nervous and respiratory
systems resulting in nausea, stomach cramps, diarrhea and excessive salivation.
Other symptoms at high doses include sweating, blurring of vision, incoordination,
and convulsions.
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Carbaryl is lethal to many nontarget insects. The pesticide is more active in
insects than in mammals. The destruction of honeybee populations in
sprayed areas is sometimes a problem. Carbaryl is moderately toxic to
aquatic organisms, such as rainbow and lake trout, bluegill, and cutthroat. It
is also moderately toxic to wild bird species, with low toxicity to Canada
geese .
Accumulation of carbaryl can occur in catfish, crawfish, and snails, as well

as in algae and duckweed. Residue levels in fish were 140 fold greater than
the concentration of carbaryl in water. In general, due to its rapid
metabolism and rapid degradation, carbaryl should not pose a significant
bioaccumulation risk in alkaline waters. However, under conditions below
neutrality it may be significant .
Pyrethroides
• Pyrethroides and pyrethrins are similar organic compounds isolated
from the flowers of pyrethrums (Chrysanthemum Coccineum and C.
cinerariaefolium). The insecticidal properties of pyrethrins are derived
from ketoalcoholic esters of chrysanthemic and pyrethroic acids .
Pyrethroides affect the sodium channels and lead to paralysis of the
organism. Pyrethroides have a comparatively slight level of
mammalian toxicity and have a fast biodegradation capacity.
Exposure to very high levels of the compounds in air, food or water
may cause giddiness, headache, vomiting, muscle twitching, low
energy, convulsions and loss of consciousness
Others
• There are many more pesticides used in agricultural practice. Heavy

metals have found vast use as pesticides. Elements like iron, lead,
sulphur, arsenic, mercury, zinc, tin, etc. have been used in inorganic or
organic metal form. Methyl mercuric chloride, sodium arsenate,
calcium arsenate, zinc phosphide are some of the compounds that fall
under this category. Among the various classes of pesticides,
organochlorines and organophosphates are widely used.
Organochlorines are known for their high persistence and toxicity
characteristics. These pesticides cause neurological damage, endocrine
disorders, and have acute and chronic health effects. Hence
contamination of the environment with organochlorine pesticides
drastically affects the ecosystem.
Fungicide: Phenylamides & Phthalimides
1. Phenylamide fungicides are systemic compounds that show potent
eradicative anti-fungal activity. When added to the soil, they enhance
plant growth and yield; in addition, these fungicides affect the
homeostastis of the soil system. These chemicals affect nutrient cycling
and enter the food chain, and have thus been reported to affect higher
organisms including humans. They affect nucleic acids by inhibiting the
activity of RNA polymerase I system. They are known to impact mitosis
and cell division in target fungi.
2. Phthalimides: Phthalimides include three fungicides, captan, folpet and
captafol which together represent the second most important group of
organic fungicides used. They represent about half the usage of the
dithiocarbamates. The fungicides difolatan, captan and folpet react with
thiols such as cysteine and glutathione at acidic pH levels of 4.0 to 5.0.
Herbicides:
1. Phenoxyalkonates are a widely used family of herbicides. These pesticides
are mainly used to control weeds in agriculture. Nearly all compounds of this
group are degraded by microorganisms.
Eg: 2,4-D(2,4 Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid),2,4 5 T(2,4 5 Trichloro Phenoxy
acetic acid) Dichloroprop, Mecoprop, Erbin, Sesone
2. Triazines: The compounds that fall under this category are herbicidal
pesticides. They include desmetryne, chlorazine, atriazine, propazine, etc. These
compounds are known to have potential use as insect chemosterilants. Higher
concentrations of these herbicides were found to inhibit plant catabolism
pathway.
Eg. Atrazine, Simazine, Ametryn, Atratone, Chlorazine, Cynazine, Cyprazine,
Metribuzin, Propazine, Turbutryn, Simetryn
Herbicides:
3. Benzoic acid: Benzoic acid herbicides include dicamba, dichlobenil, chlorambin,

bromoxynil, ioxynil and naptalam. Little information is available regarding their
degradation by soil microbes. Ioxynil is found to precipitate in acid soils.
Eg. Dicamba, Dichlorobenil, Chloroambin, Tricamba, Neptalan, Bromoxynil
4. Dipyrids: The dipyridyl herbicides include paraquat and diquat. They are strongly
adsorbed as organic cations in the soil . Microorganisms metabolize paraquat as the main
source of nitrogen.
Eg. Paraquat, Diaquat
What are crop protection chemicals?
The development of chemicals to protect agricultural crops is an important
activity within the chemical industry. Without them, many crops would suffer
losses dramatically.
Chemical crop protection products, commonly referred to as pesticides or
agrochemical products, play a vital role in controlling the pests and diseases
that infect, consume or damage crops thereby significantly reducing the
quantity and quality of food production, while the benefits of agricultural
innovation goes to farmers and consumers. Chemical crop protection products
or “pesticides” help control insects, diseases, weeds, fungi and other
undesirable pests. It is estimated that annual crop losses could double without
the use of crop protection products. Based on the type of pesticide, the
pesticide market is classified into fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, and
others.
Herbicides: substances that kill or inhibit growth of unwanted plants (weeds)
Insecticides: substances that kill arthropod pests, i.e. insects and mites
Fungicides: substances that destroy or prevent the growth of pathogenic fungi
Significance of crop protection chemicals
Every year in India, pests and diseases eat away, on an average, 20-30% of
food, worth about Rs. 45000 crore, produced by the farmers. World over, the
damage by fungi to rice, wheat and maize alone costs $60 billion per year and
the Fungal diseases destroy 125 million tonnes of rice, wheat, maize, potatoes
and soyabeans each year. Stemming fungal diseases alone in the world’s five
most important crops could feed more than 600 million people. It is, therefore,
essential to control the pests and diseases through Primary Plant Protection for
providing sufficient food security to the growing population of the country.
“Green Revolution” during the 1960s and 1970s, has considerably increased the
crop production and made India self-sufficient in food. It is mentioned that
apart from High Yielding Seeds, chemical fertilizers, irrigation; pesticides played
a very important role in enabling the Green Revolution. However, it is difficult
to segregate the contribution, exclusively made by pesticides. Availability of
safe & effective pesticides and their judicious use by the farming community is
critical to a sustained increase in agricultural production and productivity.
Pesticides are also useful in health programmes for controlling vectors,
responsible for diseases like malaria.
Global market for crop protection chemicals
The crop protection chemicals market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 5.15% to reach USD
70.57 Billion by 2021. The market growth is driven by the rising need for food security for the
growing population, advancement in farming practices and technologies and heavy crop loss
due to pest infestations. The market is further driven by factors such as increasing demand for
biopesticides along with increasing acceptance for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) by the
farmers, and high opportunities in developing countries
On the basis of type, the global market is led by herbicides, followed by, insecticides and
fungicides. On the basis of origin of crop protection chemicals, the market is led by synthetic
crop protections chemicals, but biopesticides is projected to be the fastest-growing market due
to the rising demand for biopesticides by the farmers, as they are less toxic and environment
friendly.
The Indian crop protection chemicals market is projected to witness a CAGR of 3.73% during
the forecast period (2019-2024) to reach USD 2.61 billion in 2024. India is a high growth and
high size market for the crop protection chemical industry on the back of its diverse
agroclimatic conditions as well as the country's increasing impetus on improvements in
agricultural productivity. The Indian market for biopesticides is projected to grow at a CAGR of
close to 16% over the forecast period (2019-2024). The major companies dominating the
Indian market for its products, services, and continuous product developments are Bayer
CropScience, Syngenta India Limited, UPL Limited, PI Industries, Rallis India Limited, Corteva
Agriscience, Crystal Crop Protection, Indofil Industries Limited, FMC India, among others.
5,000 YEARS OF CROP PROTECTION
Like all agricultural innovations, Crop protection products have evolved tremendously since
their inception. From natural chemical elements to plant- and metal-based insecticides to
synthetic products, formulations have drastically changed and for the better: today’s products
are more sustainable, targeted, efficient and environmental friendly than their predecessors.
The first recorded use of an insecticide was about 5000 years ago by the Sumarians, who
used sulfur compounds to control insects and mites attacking their food sources. Then, in the
first century B.C., Romans used a few techniques – a compound made from crushed olives,
burnt sulfur and salt – to control ants and weeds in their crops. In 800 A.D., the Chinese
used arsenic mixed with water to control insects in their field crops and citrus orchards.
Other pesticides, derived from natural sources such as pyrethrum from dried
Chrysanthemum flowers and nicotine extract from tobacco plants, evolved over time.
From 1750 to about 1880, farmers began using crop protection products more widely and
international trade promoted the use of plant- and metal-based insecticides. Until the early
1900s, Europe and the U.S. used compounds made with sulfur, iron, copper, arsenic and
sodium to control weeds in cereal crops and fungus in grapes. In the 1930s and 40s,
effective and widely used fungicides were developed along with the first synthetic
insecticides.
By the 1960s and 70s, farmers began to utilize Integrated pest Management (IPM) to
control pests. IPM is based on the idea that farmers can manage insect pests, using
crop protection products only when needed. This practice paved the way for the
development of more targeted and environmentally friendly products, such as
pyrethrum-based formulations. In addition, with improved research, the plant science
industry began developing more efficient products that were effective at lower rates,
such as one ounce of active ingredient per acre rather than two pounds used
previously. Herbicides like glyphosate, which are still commonly used today, were
developed in the 1970s and have continued to improve and become more efficient
over time.
In the 1990s, crop protection product development concentrated on finding active
ingredients that better target pests. Through biotechnology, plant scientists also
improved the IPM concept – using naturally occurring materials such as insect
hormone or venom, microbes or plant material extracts like Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt) – to more accurately and selectively target pests. Finally, weed treatments, such as
neonicotinoids, were developed during this time to protect emerging seedlings from
pests while not impacting beneficial species like pollinators.
The plant science industry invests heavily in research to develop new products,
ensuring that they do not pose unacceptable risks to humans or the environment. In
fact, it now takes about $286 million USD and 11 years of research and development
to bring a new crop protection product to market.
Today, crop protection products are more environmentally friendly, targeted and
efficient, allowing farmers to better control target pests while allowing beneficial flora
and fauna to prosper.
What are Pesticides?
Pesticides means any substance intended for preventing, destroying,
attracting, repelling or controlling any pest including unwanted species of plants
or animals during production, storage, transport, distribution and processing of
food, agricultural commodities or animals feed. The term normally excludes
fertilizers, plant and animal nutrients, food additives and animal drugs.
What is pest?
Pests are any organisms, insects, rodents, nematodes, fungal diseases,
weeds, herbs, bacteria etc which are injurious to the health of man or to man’s
economic efforts.
Pesticides is a general terms used in connection with pest. More specific
terms are available for individual pest categories. These are as follows:
Insecticides: are substances that prevent, destroy, kill insects ( belongs to the
class insects, phylum athropoda)
What are Pesticides?
Fungicides: are substances that prevent, destroy or inhibit the growth of
fungus or disease in crops.
Herbicides: are substances which are preventing, or inhibiting the growth of
unwanted plants or for killing weeds.
Rodenticides: are substances that inhibit growth, destroy or kill rodents ( class
Mammalia, Order: Rodentia)
Chemosterilants: are substances that sterilize the plants.
Plant growth regulator: are substances that cause the acceleration or
retardation of the rate of growth or rate maturation.
Attractants: are substances that attract the pests
Repellents: are the substances that repel the pest from treated plants.
etc
Properties of ideal Pesticides
1. It should have a broad spectrum to kill the pests.
2. It should be non-toxic to mammals.
3. It should be non-toxic to plants
4. It should have low production cost
5. It should have low residual toxicity
6. It should have low toxic to beneficial insects.
7. It should be compatible with other pesticides
8. It should not produce off taste on vegetables and fruits
9. It should not inflammable and should have not corrosive action on metals.
Steps involved in commercial development of pesticides starting from Laboratory
synthesis
1. Synthesis
2. The preliminary screening
3. Formulation
4. Toxicity studies
5. Residue studies
6. Registration
7. Promotion
8. Pilot plant studies
9. Commercial Development
Reasons for use of pesticides
1. Pesticides are used to ensure better protection against unpredictable losses

caused by plant diseases and pests
2. Pesticides are used to improve both quality and quantity of food
3. Pesticides are used to decrease the extent of vector born and other
diseases in humans and animals
Classification of Insecticides
• Insecticides are classified in three ways
• (I) According to their mode of entry:

• Stomach Poisons: This insecticides are applied to the part of the Crop
which serves as food for pest. For example DDT, BHC. Their application is
through food and entry the midgut of the insect. Stomach poisons are
necessarily therefore to be ingested during feeding.
• Contact Poisons : Contact poisons are those which kills the pests only due
to contact or absorbed action. Their application is through body surface
and entry through the cuticle and tracheae. For example pyrethrum,
rotenone, toxaphene etc
• Fumigants: Gaseous poisons used for killing insects are called fumigants.
These are applied in vapour state and their entry is through tracheae e.g.
HCN, chloropicrin, DDVP, methyl bromide, chloropicrin
• Systemic Insecticides: Systemic insecticides are toxicants which when
applied to the root, stem or leaves of plants are rapidly absorbed and
translocated to various parts of the plants in amounts lethal to insects
feeding on these. Eg Phorate, aldicarb, carbofuran. Translocation of
these pesticide takes place mostly through xylem vessels only.
The main properties of the systemic insecticides are:
(a) The compound should have ability to penetrate into the plant
through roots, stems and leaves
(b) The compound should have sufficient solubility to enable the
compounds to move in the plant sap
(II) According to mode of action:
Physical poisons: Some substances kill insects by their physical action. No direct
chemical or biochemical effect is caused by these insecticides. This type of product
may be incorporated during formulation development to enhance the efficacy of
insecticides.
The different physical effects that these insecticides exert include
(a) Moisture stress: Some substances like charcoal absorb moisture from body and
thus desiccate the insect to death
(b) Mechanical injury: Dust of aluminium oxide cause abrasion of the cuticle. This
mechanical injury finally lead to loss of moisture from the body of the insects.
Some inert dusts like talc when added to stored grain fill in the interspaces
between the grains causing difficulty in movement of stored products pests.
©: Asphyxiation: Heavy mineral oil, tar oil etc when applied on insect block the
passage of air through the spiracular apertures. Scale insect and insect’s egg can be
easily controlled .
Protoplasmic Poison: These poisons primarily cause precipitation of protein
in the insect cells. Most of the inorganic insecticides like fluorides, arsenicals
etc and organic insecticides like nitrophenols, fatty and mineral oils,
formaldehyde, heavy metals like copper and mercury when ingested cause
precipitation of cellular proteins in the mid-gut epithelium.
Respiratory Poison: These poisons are to be differentiated from the physical
poison which exclude entry of oxygen into the breathing system in physical
ways. The poisons included in this group cause anoxia I,e bring about
biochemical blockade of passage of oxygen at cellular level inspite of the fact
that atmospheric oxygen has free access into the tracheae and tracheoles.
This insecticides mostly include fumigants like HCN
Nerve poison:
The first two systems have the serious defect of overlapping of their function
• (III) According to their chemical nature:
Inorganic Compounds : Arsenicals, Fluorine compound etc
Organic Compounds: DDT, BHC, Phorate and Carbaryl
Organic Insecticides are classified into natural and synthetic Compounds.
Natural compounds are further divided into Petroleum oil and botanicals.
Oil Formulation: There are three oil formulations in general use:
(i) Oil emulsions: Which is the mixture of oil, a small quantity of water and
an emulsifier (soap, blood albumin etc.) to make oil somewhat miscible with
water. This makes a stock spray (commercially emulsifiable oils) to which a
recommended amount of water is added at the time of use as a spray.
• (ii) Emulsive Oil: Contains only oil and emulsifier (soap, blood
albumin etc.) no water. They are emulsified by agitation in spray tank
• (iii) Tank mix oils: wherein the emulsifier and water added separately
only at the time of use
Use of Oil: (I) As a insecticide carrier and (II) As insecticides themselves

Advantages: (I) They are relatively cheaper than other insecticides
(II) They posses good spreading quality
(III) They are easy to mix and to handle
(IV) They are safe for animals
Dis-advantages: (I) They posses low insect toxicity
(II) They are unstable on storage
(III) They are phytotoxic, therefore largely used as solvent for domestic
insecticides.
(IV) They damage insecticides equipments- rubber hoses and other
parts of the sprayers
Bio-pesticide
The term biopesticides defines compounds that are used to manage agricultural pests
by means of specific biological effects rather than as broader chemical pesticides. It
refers to products containing biocontrol agents – i.e., natural organisms or substances
derived from natural materials (such as animals, plants, bacteria, or certain minerals),
including their genes or metabolites, for controlling pests. Biopesticide can be
classified as follows:
Microbial pesticides : pesticides that contain microorganism, like bacteria, fungi, or
virus, which attack specific pest species, as active ingredients. Although most of these
agents attack insect species (called entomopathogens; products referred to as
bioinsecticides), there are also microorganisms (i.e., fungi) that control weeds
(bioherbicides).
Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs): these include pesticidal substances that are
produced in genetically modified plants/organisms (GMO) (i.e., through the genetic
material that has been incorporated into the plant).
Bio-pesticide
Biochemical pesticides: pesticides based on naturally occurring substances

that control pest by non-toxic mechanisms. Biochemical pesticides fall into different
biologically functional classes, including pheromones, and other semiochemicals, plant
extracts, and natural insect growth regulator.
Microbial pesticides: Bacillus thuringiensis
Bacillus thuringiensis (or Bt) is a gram positive, soil-dwelling bacteria (microbe). It is
naturally found in soil. During Sporulation, many B. thuringiensis strains produce
crystal proteins that are toxic to insects larvae. The protein, also known as Bt toxin,
is produced in an inactive, crystalline form. When consumed by insects, the protein is
converted to its active, toxic form (delta endotoxin), which in turn destroys the gut of
the insect.
It is also called crystal proteins or Cry proteins which are encoded by cry genes. In
most strains of B. thuringiensis, the cry genes are located on a plasmids (cry is not a
chromosomal gene in most strains).
Cry toxins have specific activities against insect species specially for the orders
Lepidoptera. They are target specific. They are used as specific insecticides under
trade names such as DiPel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these
pesticides are regarded as environmental friendly, with little or no effect on
humans, wildlife, pollinators, and other beneficial insects, and are used in organic
farming.
Microbial pesticides: Bacillus thuringiensis
How does Bt work?
Bt has to be eaten to cause mortality. The Bt toxin dissolve in the high pH insect gut
(Alkaline) and become active. The toxins then attack the gut cells of the insect,
punching holes in the lining. The Bt spores spills out of the gut and germinate in the
insect causing death within a couple days. Even though the toxin does not kill the
insect immediately, treated plant parts will not be damaged because the insect stops
feeding within hours. Bt spores do not spread to other insects or cause disease
outbreaks on their own.
Bt action is very specific. Different strains of Bt are specific to different receptors in
insect gut wall. Bt toxicity depends on recognizing receptors, damage to the gut by the
toxin occurs upon binding to a receptor. Each insect species possesses different types
of receptors that will match only certain toxin proteins, like a lock to a key.
It is because of this that farmers have to be careful to match the target pest species
with a particular Bt toxin protein which is specific for that insect. This also helps the
beneficial insects because they will usually not be harmed by that particular strain
of Bt.
Microbial pesticides: nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV)
The nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), is a virus having insecticidal properties, predominantly
affecting the moth and butterflies. The poly hedral capsid from which the virus gets its name is
an extremely stable protein srystal that protects the virus in the external environment. It
dissolves in the alkaline midgut of moths and butterflies to release the virus particle and
infect the larva.
Symptoms of NPV infection in insects include:
➢ Discoloration (brown and yellow)
➢ Stress
➢ Decomposition (liquedification)
➢ slow movement to no movement at all; refusal to eat)
The virus enters the nucleus of infected cells and reproduces until the cell begins to produce
crystals in the fluids of the host. These crystals can transmit the virus from one host to
another. The host becomes visibly swollen with fluid containing the virus, and eventually dies,
turning black with decay.Mortality in infected insects is nearly 100%.
The virus is unable to infect humans in the way it does insects, because human stomachs are
acid-based and NPV requires an alkaline digestive system in order to replicate. It is possible for
the virus crystals to enter human cells, but not to replicate to the point of causing illness
Mass production of Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV)
Materials required: Agar-agar : 12.75g
Gram floor (Besan) : 105g
Methyl Para Hydroxyl Benzoate : 2g
Yeast powder : 10g
Ascorbic acid : 3.5g
Sorbic acid : 1g
Streptomycin : 0.25g
Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus
Multi vitamin : 2 capsule
Vitamin-E (400 mg) : 1 capsule
Distilled water : 390 ml
Centrifugal machine
Glass vials
Muslin cloth
Methodology
• Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) is host specific for Spodoptera
litura and Helicoverpa armigera. NPV is a stomach poison. NPV is effective
when it is ingested by the larvae. The mass production of NPV of H.
armigera and S. litura is same except H. armigera is reared in individual vial
to avoid cannibalism. The NPV of these pests can be produced by using both
natural as well as artificial diet contaminated with the respective NPV. The
third instar larvae of these pests either collected from field or reared in the
laboratory are allowed to feed the contaminated diet. Keep larvae hungry for
24 hours before inoculation of virus. Larvae get infected with virus within 3-4
days and hang themself upside down in tubes. These infected larvae are
collected in a beaker containing water for 3-4 days for putrification. The
putrified larvae are crushed with the help of mixer cum grinder by adding
some water. This solution is filtered with the help of muslin cloth and add
more water, if required. The filtered extract solution is centrifuged (30,000
RPM) to separate the polyhedral of NPV from the solution. The polyhedral is
separated from the water and is ready to use.
Beauveria bassiana
• Beauveria bassiana is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout
the world and acts as a parasite on various insects species, causing white
muscardine disease; it thus belongs to the entomopathogenic fungi. It is
being used as a biological insecticide to control a number of pests such
as termites, thrips, whitefly, aphids and different beetles.
White muscardine disease: The insect disease caused by the fungus is a
muscardine which has been called white muscardine disease. When the
microscopic spores of the fungus come into contact with the body of an
insect host, they germinate, penetrate the cuticle, and grow inside, killing
the insect within a matter of days. Afterwards, a white mold emerges from
the cadaver and produces new spores. A typical isolate of B. bassiana can
attack a broad range of insects; various isolates differ in their host range.
The factors responsible for host susceptibility are not known.
Mass production of Beauveria bassiana
• Materials required: Sorghum, Water, Chalk powder, Autoclave
Methodology: Soak 1 Kg of Sorghum in water for 48 hours. Replace water after
24 hrs, after 48 hrs. rinse water completely. Separate equally in 10-15 flasks
and plug with hard cotton cushion and wrap with double aluminum foil.
Sterilize for 40 minutes with 21 psi. Inoculate the each flask containing jowar
with 2-3 drop of nucleus culture after cooling. Beauveria culture will grow fully
after 20-25 days. Mix 2 Kg of chalk powder in Beauveria culture and dry in
shade.
Dose: 1 gram/liter of water or 1 Kg/1000 liter of water/ha (Repeat application
after 10-20 days interval). Beauveria bassiana can be used as a biological
insecticide to control a number of pests such as termites, whiteflies, and many
other insects. As an insecticide, the spores are sprayed on affected crops as an
emulsified suspension or wettable powder. The fungus rarely infects humans or
other animals, so it is generally considered safe as an insecticide.
Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs)
• Plants can be given genes that help the plants' bodies make substances to
fight pests. These self-made pesticides are called "plant-incorporated
protectants" (PIPs). PIP-producing crops are sometimes called "genetically
modified" (GM) or "genetically engineered" (GE) plant.
• PIPs can help plants resist viruses, bacteria and insects. When PIP crops target
insects, they can be called "insect-resistant." PIP-producing plants can help
growers lower the amount of pesticides they use on their fields.
• Some of the crops that can be made to produce PIPs are corn, soybeans,
cotton, potatoes and plums. However, this does not mean that all of the
crops (corn, soybean, etc.) you see in farmers' fields are making their own
pesticides. Other forms of these crops are still conventionally or organically
grown.
Example of Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs): Bt cotton, Bt Maize. Bt
cotton, a genetically modified (GM) crop in which a gene for the Bt pesticidal
protein was introduced to the plant's own genetic material.
Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs)
• PIP plants are regulated as pesticides by the Authority. Authority looks at the
risks of each PIP before it can be registered as a pesticide. This review aims to
protect human and environmental health. The following factors are
considered in these reviews:
✓Risks to human health and the environment — including plants, animals and
other living things that are not the pests
✓What to do if pest insects develop the ability to recover from the plant-made
pesticides. This ability is called "insect resistance" or "pesticide resistance."
✓The chance that PIP genes could spread to other plants
Another genetic modification: Herbicide-tolerant plants
• Herbicide-tolerant (HT) plants have their genes changed to make them
survive the use of specific weed killers.HT plants are sometimes called
genetically modified or genetically engineered.
Botanical insecticides
Botanical insecticides: The botanicals are plant products that have
been used as insect repellents in our country from ancient times. Plants
yields the following products that are used in insect control;
(I) Toxicants or insecticides
(II) Attractants (Geraniol, Eugenol)
(III) Repellents (Oil of citronella and ceder)
(IV) Solvent for insecticides (Cotton seed oil)
(V) Dust carrier (Soybean and walnut shell flours)
Example of Some botanical pesticides along with their properties,
formulation, target insects, advantages and disadvantages are as
follows:
1. Nicotine (C10H14N2 ) : Tobacco was used in insect control in France
from early 1800 Its active ingredient was isolated, identify and
named as nicotine. The tobacco plants contains 12 alkaloids of
which nicotine, nornicotine and anabasine posses as insecticidal
properties. There are several species of tobacco plants but only
two, namely, Nicotiana tabacum and N. rustica are used for
extraction of Nicotine.
Properties: Pure nicotine is a colourless liquid soluble in water and in
most organic solvents darkens and becomes viscous on exposure to air.
It has low toxicity to plants, more to insects and the most to mammals.
In insect, it acts as contact and stomach poison affecting the nervous
systems. LD50 (Lethal dose) for aphid is 48.
1. Formulation: Nicotine is used as dust, spray and fumigant. The
compound that is commercially sold is nicotine sulphate ( contains
40 percent nicotine) which readily dissolved in water. As dust, either
crude tobacco is finely ground and mixed with a carrier.
As spray, one part of nicotine sulphate is dissolved in 500-1000 parts of
water
Target pests: Soft bodies sucking insects like aphids, thrips and scale
insects.
Advantage: Nicotine leaves no harmful residue
Disadvantage: Nicotine is highly toxic to mammals
2. Pyrethrum or Pyrethrins: Pyrethrum is obtained from the white
flower of Crysanthemum. The active ingredients of pyrethrum are six
esters: Pyrethrin I and II, Cinerin I and II, Jasmoline I and II whose
structural formulae are similar.
Properties: This is a contact insecticide affecting the nervous system.
The affected insect gets paralysed and quickly falls to the ground. This
action is termed as “ knock down” which does not lead to immediate
death and some insect may recover after a knock-down. Its LD50 for
housefly is 31 and for the bedbug 5.
Formulations: Pyrethrum is formulated as dust by grinding dried
flowers and mixing the powder with a non-alkaline carrier, as a spray by
extracting the active materials in solvents and as aerosols. A synergist is
usually added to increase its toxicity.
Targets: The target encompass a wide range. Pyrethrum is particularly
effective on ectoparasites like chewing lice of livestocks and on aphids.
It is also used as insect repellent. When mixed with grain, it protect the
store grain pests.
Advantages: (i) Pyrethrum posses a quick knock down powder
(ii) affect wide range of insects.
(iii) It has low plant and mammalian toxicity- only
insecticides approved in USA for use in food packaging.
(IV) It don't have any residual effect
Disadvantages: Pyrethrum is unstable and decomposed by sunlight
(II) It is expensive
3. Rotenone: The plant contained a chemicals that is known as
rotenone. It was first used as insecticides against caterpillar.
Properties: pure rotenone is a white, crystalline substance, insoluble in
water and soluble in organic solvent. Rapidly decomposed by light snd
alkalis. It is both contact and stomach poison which affects respiration
by the inhibition of O2 utilization by the body cells resulting in the
death of the insect. LD50 for B. mori is 3.
Formulations: It is formulated as dusts, WDP, EC and aerosols. Dust is
prepared by adding rotenone powder with 3-7 parts of a carrier like
talc, clay or gypsum never with alkaline carrier like lime. Dust are
effective in case of ectoparasite
Targets: Rotenone is effective against aphids, ectoparasite, pests of
vegetables and ornamentals plant. The crystalline form is also used in
moth proofing.
Advantages: It is harmless to animals, man and plants and no residual
effect.
Disadvantages: It has low toxicity to some insect.
4. Sabadilla: This is prepared from the seed of Amarican plant, Sabadilla
Officinale. A crude mixture of the plant alkaloids from subadilla seed is termed
as veratrine which contains several alkaloids, of which cevadine and veratridine
are toxic to insects.
Properties: Toxic principles of Sabadilla are easily destroyed by light. The
toxicants acts both as contact and stomach poison.
Formulations: This is formulated as dusts and sprays. Dusts are prepared by 5 to
20 percent ground seed of S. officinale mixed with a carrier like lime or sulphur.
Spray are prepared as 50 percent WDP.
Target: Human lice and thrips.
Advantages: It is safe for food crop
Disadvantages: It is unstable (II) It has low insect toxicity (III) It is toxic to
mammals
5. Acorus: Sweetflag or Acorus Calamus has insecticidal properties. A
mixture of powdered rhizome and powdered seeds affords protection
against stored grain pests. A mixture of its powder, water and soap can be
used as spray against aphids and caterpillars. Essential oil extracted from
the Acorus rhizome found to produce sterility in insect. This property can
also be used to control pests.
6. Neem: Neem or Azadirachta indica belongs to Meliaceae family have insecticidal
properties.
Active Ingredient: Seed is the main source for active ingredient. Apart from seed, bark
and leaf can be used for the same. The different active compound found in leaves are
Salannin, Azadirachtin, Azadiradion, Deacetylnimbinen, gedunin etc. Azadirachtin is the
main active compound.
Effect of neem derivatives: Neem derivatives do not kill insect outright as do the
chemical pesticides. The modify the insect’s behavior and influence their biological
process . The example of these effects are as follows:
1. Antifeedant or phagodeterrent effect
2. Oviposition inhibiting effect:
3. Growth and metamorphosis inhibiting effect
4. Effect on fecundity and egg sterility
5. Miscellaneous effect
Other type of insecticides: Semiochemicals
Chemical communication plays an important and essential role in the
survival of insects, which enable them to appraise immediate environment
through modification of their behavior. Semiochemicals are organic
compounds used by insects to convey specific chemical messages that
modify behavior or physiology. The term semiochemical is derived from
the Greek word “semeon” which means sign or signal. Insects use
semiochemicals to locate mate, host, or food source, avoid competition,
escape natural enemies, and overcome natural defense systems of their
hosts. Semiochemicals have the advantage of being used to communicate
message over relatively long distances compared with other insect means
of communication such as touch. Semiochemicals have different molecular
weights depending on carbon chain. They are biologically active at very
low concentration in the environment, thus their chemical characterization
is complicated.
Other type of insecticides: Semiochemicals
Equipment items include solid-phase microextraction (SPME), gas
chromatography-electroantennography (GC-EAG), gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) etc
are needed for extraction and chemical characterization of
semiochemicals.
Semiochemicals are species-specific and harmless to the environment.
These advantages over conventional insect pest control agents make
semiochemicals promising tools for the management of agricultural pests
particularly under organic cropping systems.
Identification and behavioral characterization of semiochemicals
• Identifying the range of volatiles that insects can detect in their environment is an important step
toward understanding the role of olfaction in modulating insect behavior. The process of
semiochemical identification involves extraction or headspace collection, identification of active
compounds, characterization of chemical composition of the identified compound, and
elucidation of behavioral response of the insect to the active product. If the organ that produces
the semiochemical is known, for example, the exocrine gland or the gut of the insect, it can be
extracted and identified. However, nonrelevant compounds can also be extracted, which
complicate the identification process. Accordingly, headspace collection is preferred instead
where a charcoal-filtered air is passed over the insect or its organ in an isolated aeration chamber
and the odor-laden air is withdrawn by vacuum for analysis. The air containing a mixture of
volatiles can be analyzed per se or after being absorbed by super Q using columns. In the 1950s, it
has been discovered that a measurable voltage arised between the tip and base of the insect
antenna when exposed to odors of biological significance for the insect. This antennal response to
different odors is known as electroantennogram or EAG. This voltage is thought to represent the
summed potentials of multiple responding olfactory neurons within the antenna, and the
amplitude of the voltage roughly corresponds to an insect’s sensitivity to a particular compound.
The EAG has been widely used in entomology for pheromones’ identification. The
electroantennogram was improved through time and the insect antenna has been used as a
detector (EAD) for a capillary-column gas chromatography, which is coupled with the flame
ionization detector (FID) that is sensitive to all organic molecules.
Identification and behavioral characterization of semiochemicals
• The GC-EAD is gas chromatography coupled with electroantennographic detection of compounds
present in complex mixtures. This analytical procedure allows for rapid and accurate identification of
insect odors. It is widely used to discover and identify semiochemicals like insect pheromones and
repellents . The apparatus consists of injector (heated chamber), the column (10–100 m long, 1 mm
wide) lined with a semisolid wax or polymer, flame ionization detector, insect antennal preparation,
and a monitor to display the voltage output of the detector and the insect antenna (voltage on the Y-
axis against time on the X-axis). Retention time and peak of each molecule give the identity and
amount of the compound in the mixture, respectively. The FID output can be used to confirm the
presence, identity, and quantity of compounds exposed to the antenna while the antennal (EAD)
output indicates the presence/absence of olfactory sensitivity to eluting compounds and provides a
relative measure of the intensity of olfactory stimulation. The FID peaks of the test compounds can be
compared with retention times of those of commercially available versions of the same compounds
injected into the GC. Identifications can be confirmed by re-analyzing the extract with a coupled gas
chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) using the same column and GC operating parameters as
used in the GC-EAD analysis. Testing the behavioral activity of EAD-active volatiles is an important and
complementary step in the identification of semiochemicals that modify insect behavior. This
behavioral bioassay test can be carried out using wind tunnel or an olfactometer
Potential use of semiochemicals in insect pest management
• Attract and kill (A&K)
• The technique as the name implies simply use an attractant or
semiochemical to lure an insect to a point source that contains a killing
agent (insecticide, pathogen, or sterilant), hence the technique is termed
attract and kill, attract and infect, and attract and sterilize, respectively.
The technique leads to the reduction of the insect population by killing
the target insect or reducing its fitness and fecundity or disabling it by
causing disease.
• Mating disruption
The technique is most commonly used in semiochemical-based pest
management. It manipulates insect behavior in such a way that leads to
population reduction. The environment where specific insect pest needs to
be controlled is saturated with synthetic sex pheromones so that the
abilities of males to locate the natural pheromone plume emitted by
Potential use of semiochemicals in insect pest management
• females are disrupted. Mating disruption using synthetic pheromones or
parapheromones does not completely shut off mating, but the delay in
females mating may reduce their fecundity by approximately 50%. Insect
females have a critical time to mate and reproduce and any delay of
mating may affect their fitness and their abilities to select the suitable
sites for oviposition .
Trichogramma egg parasite - Mass production
• Introduction: Trichogramma spp. belongs to the category of egg parasitoid of
biological agents. Trichogramma spp., the most widely used bio-control agent
in the world and is effective against bollworms of cotton, stem borers of
sugarcane, fruit borers of fruits and vegetables. It attacks the pest at the egg
stage itself and hence damage done by larvae is avoided. It offers a lower cost
but more effective plant protection option in comparison to insecticides. Two
species i.e., T. chilonis and T. japonicum are predominantly used in India.
Trichogramma are dark coloured tiny wasps and the female wasp lays 20-40
eggs into the host's eggs. The entire cycle is completed within 8-12 days. The
tiny adult wasps search for the host (pest) eggs in the field and lay their eggs
into the eggs of the pests. The parasitised host's eggs turn uniformly black in
3-4 days. The Trichogramma eggs on hatching, feed the embronic contents of
host's egg, completes its development and adult comes out of the host egg by
chewing a circular hole. A single Trichogramma, while multiplying itself, can
thus destroy over 100 eggs of the pest.
• 2. Major equipment needed
• Equipments like semi-automatic corcera rearing cages, trays, iron racks, hot air
oven, air conditioner, UV chamber, incubator, moth breeding tins, grinder,
mating chambers, parasitization jars, refrigerator, wire mesh, netlon etc. are
required for mass rearing of corcera and Trichogramma production.
• 3. Steps involved in production
• i) Identification of host
• The Trichogramma of multiplication starts with identification of a suitable host
species, with the following characteristics :
• easily available.
• easy to culture with the locally available material.
• should yield maximum host egg/larvae/pupae per unit cost.
• In India Corcera cephalonica, a stored grain pest has been used for mass multiplication of targetted
species.
• ii) Rearing of host insect
• The host rearing containers are made of materials which are non-toxic, cheap and optimum sized to permit
mating and host searching and amenable to easy cleaning. Most commonly used cages are wooden cages,
which are now replaced with semi automatic corcyra rearing cages. The nuclear culture, i.e. eggs of Corcyra
cephalonica are introduced in rearing cages. In the model use of semiautomatic rearing cages of 30 no. is
considered.
• iii) Preparation of feed material
• Corcyra feed may be prepared from bold white sorghum grains without any insecticide residues. This can be
tested by taking a sample of 100 g from each bag. The crushed sample is fed to 20 number of 1st/2nd instar
Corcyra larvae for 2-3 days. Based on the mortality of the larvae, suitability of grains may be decided. The
requisite quantum of sorghum is milled to make 3-4 pieces of each grain. Sorghum grains are heat sterilised in
oven at 100°C for 30 minutes and the grains are sprayed with 0.1% formalin. This treatment helps in
preventing the growth of moulds as well as to increase the grain moisture to the optimum (15-16%), which
was lost due to heat sterilisation. Then grains are air dried.
• iv) Corcyra charging
• In each rearing cage, 7.5 kg of sorghum grains are filled and charged with 0.5cc eggs (1cc = 20,000 eggs) of
mother culture. Yeast, groundnut kernel and streptomycin is added to enhance egg laying capacity of the
adult moths and for enriching the diet.
• v) Collection of moths
• After about 40 days of charging, moths start emerging and the emergence continues for two months. 10 to 75
moths emerge daily with the peak emergence being between 65th and 75th day.
• Collect the moths daily and transfer to the specially designed oviposition cages for egg laying. Roughly 2000-
3000 pairs of moth can be placed in one chamber. Moth emergence reduces after 100 days of initial
infestation and cages are released for cleaning.
• vi) Collection of eggs
• Eggs are collected by means of manual suction and are placed in tubes and counted with measuring cylinder.
Approximately one cc of eggs of Corcyra counts about 20,000 at the fresh harvest. After that due to shrinkage
of eggs the count may be increased. The present model assumes 20,000 eggs per one cc for calculation
purpose. The final output of Corcyra eggs from one cage has been assumed at 7.5 cc.
• 4. Production of Trichocards
• The demand for Trichocards will start from the onset of kharif season and extends to rabi
season. The summer season vegetables offer an extra demand.
• i) Egg preparation
• The eggs of Corcyra thus collected are cleaned to make it free from insect scales etc. They
are sieved thrice and then poured on a plain paper. By slowly tapping eggs come downward
stick on to gummed card. Thus, the cleaned eggs are spread on the gummed cards (15 cm x
10 cm) with the help of screen. These eggs of Corcyra are exposed to UV rays of 15 watt UV
tube for 45 minutes to prevent hatching. While UV exposure, egg card should be kept about
12-15 cm away from tube.
• ii) Introduction of Trichogramma
• After the sterilisation the egg cards are placed in plastic bottles and are introduced with
nucleus culture of Trichogramma species of egg or pupal stage. The ratio of host egg and
parasite adult should be maintained at 1:5.
• iii) What is a tricho card ?
• The parasitisation of Trichogramma spp., in laboratory condition on one cc eggs of Corcyra
cephalonica, which are uniformly spread and pasted on a card measuring 15 cm x 10 cm is
called as Tricho card. The card has 12 demarcations (stamps). About 12,000 Trichogramma
adults emerge out from this card in 7-8 days after parasitisation. To delay the emergence of
Trichogramma, these cards can be stored in refrigerator at 5-100C for 10-15 days. On
removing the cards to room temperature, the parasitoids emerge normally. Trichocards
have a shelf life of 2-3 days. However, these can be stored in a refrigerator for a period of 1
month without any spoilage.
• 5. Dosage
• For controlling sugarcane early shoot borer : Start releasing 6,000 parasites per week per
acre area, for a period of 5 weeks, starting from 4th week of planting i.e., as soon as the
adult male moths of early shoot borer are noticed in the field. Totally 30,000 parasites are
to be released per acre. More parasites may also be released depending upon the crop and
pest density.
• In cotton- The Trichocards are released in the field at 45 days after sowing @ 5 cards / ha (one lakh eggs). In
total three release are necessary.
• 6. How to use 'Tricho card'
• The cards are to be used before the emergence of the adult parasite. Cut or tear each Tricho card into small
pieces and distribute them all over the field. The pieces may be stapled to sugarcane leaf at 7-8 m distance.
Care is to be taken to release the parasites either in morning or evening i.e., during cool hours, in windward
direction and there should not be any pesticide spray. Before releasing the parasite, the infected shoots are to
be cut to ground level and buried inside the soil so as to avoid secondary infestation.
• 7. Advantages of using Tricho cards
• Less cost, more effective.
• field application (releases) is very simple as compared to other methods.
• Records show higher yield in sugarcane (about 4-5 tonnes), as secondary infestation is avoided while using
Tricho cards.
• Cost of pest control is very nominal.
• Added to all these, environmental pollution is avoided.
• 8. Precautions
• The following precautions are required to be taken while using Trichocards :
• Trichocards should be packed in such a way that the parasitised surface is on the inner side.
• Emergence date should be specified on cards for the guidance of the users.
• Trichocards should be stapled on the inner-side of the leaf to avoid direct sunlight.
• Card should be stapled in morning hours and just before emergence to avoid predation.
• Farmers should refrain from using pesticides in the field where Trichogramma are released.
If need arises selective / safer pesticides can be used and it is to be ensured that pesticides
are used 15 days before or after release of Trichogramma
Pesticide Formulation
A pesticide formulation is a combination of active and inert ingredients that forms an
end-use pesticide product. Pesticides are formulated to make them safer or easier to
use. This is because many pesticide active ingredients, in “pure” (technical grade)
form, are not suitable for application. In their concentrated form, some are extremely
toxic, many do not mix well with water, some are unstable, and some are difficult (or
unsafe) to handle, transport, or store. To address these problems, manufacturers add
inert ingredients to end-use pesticide products. Inert ingredients have no pesticidal
activity, and some simply serve as diluents or carriers. In many cases, inert ingredients
make the formulated product safer, easier to handle and apply, and/or more effective.
So, in addition to the active ingredient intended to control the target pest, a formulated
product may consist of:
➢ A carrier or diluent, such as an organic solvent of mineral clay.
➢ Surface-active ingredients, such as stickers and spreaders.
➢ Other additives, such as stabilizers, dyes, and chemicals, which make the product
safer or enhance pesticidal activity.
The active ingredients in pesticide products come from many sources. Some, such as
azadirachtin, pyrethrum, and rotenone, are extracted from plants. Others are derived
from microbes or insects (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis and insect growth regulators). Still
others have a mineral origin (e.g., copper and sulfur). However, the vast majority of
active ingredients used today are produced in laboratories. These synthetic active
ingredients may have been designed by a chemist or discovered through screening
processes by examining chemicals generated by various industries or found in nature.
Regardless of where they come from or how they are produced, pesticide active
ingredients vary considerably in their physical and chemical properties. One variable is
solubility. Some dissolve in water, but many do not. Some are soluble in oils or organic
solvents. However, many such solvents are not available to applicators or safe to use. A
few active ingredients do not dissolve readily in any solvent. Solubility and the intended
use of the pesticide are two factors that determine how an active ingredient is
formulated (i.e., made into an end-use product).
Liquid pesticide products are usually one of the following:
• A solution.
• A suspension.
• An emulsion.
A solution is made by dissolving a substance in a liquid. A true solution is a mixture, but it
cannot be separated by filtration or other mechanical means. Once made, a true
solution will not “settle out” and does not need shaking or stirring (agitation) to keep the
mixed components in solution. Solutions are transparent: they will allow light to pass
through them. (However, this may not be obvious if one or more components of the
mixture are dark in color and the solution is very concentrated.) Sweetened iced tea
and saltwater are examples of solutions.
A suspension is also a liquid mixture. However, a suspension is formed by dispersing
fine (very small), solid particles in a liquid. These solid particles do not dissolve in the
liquid carrier. Suspensions must be agitated to maintain uniform particle distribution.
Otherwise, the undissolved parts of suspension mixtures will settle (or float to the top).
Most suspensions are cloudy or opaque: they will not allow light to pass through them.
Pesticide products formulated as suspensions are not water-soluble; they form more
dilute suspensions when mixed with water to make a finished spray. Label directions for
suspension formulations will instruct you to shake well before measuring and mixing.
The label will further state to apply these products only with spray equipment that has
enough agitation to keep the final mixture evenly distributed in the spray tank during
application. A mixture of flour and water is an example of a suspension.
An emulsion is a special kind of suspension: a mixture made by
suspending droplets of one liquid in another. Each ingredient retains
its unique properties and identity. To make an emulsion, an active
ingredient is dissolved in an oil-based solvent and then further
diluted with water. Some agitation may be necessary to keep an
emulsion from separating. However, most emulsion pesticide
product formulations have additives (emulsifiers or emulsifying
agents) that prevent the product from settling. As a rule, emulsions
have a “milky” appearance. An emulsifiable concentrate (E or EC) is
an emulsion. Homogenized milk is an example of an emulsion.
Most dry products are made by adhering the active ingredient to some solid
carrier, such as talc, clay, silica (the mineral quartz), or plant residues (e.g.,
ground corncobs).
Some pesticide products are sold in concentrate form and must be mixed or
diluted before use. Concentrates come in both liquid and solid form. An
emulsifiable concentrate is an example of a liquid concentrate (LC). Wettable
powders (WP), soluble powders (SP), and water-dispersible granules/dry
flowables (WDG/DF) are examples of concentrated materials sold in solid form.
Other formulations are sold ready-to-use. You can apply ready-to-use products
with no further dilution or mixing. Examples include liquids prepared as end-use
dilutions and aerosol (A), dust (D), pellet (P), granule (G), and most bait (B)
formulation products. Manufacturers package many specialized pesticides,
including products intended for residential uses by nonoccupational users, in
ready-to-use formulations.
Abbreviations in trade or brand names are often used to describe the
formulation (e.g., WP for wettable powders), how the pesticide is used
(e.g., TC for termiticide concentrate), or the characteristics of the
formulation (e.g., LO for a low-odor formulation). The amount of active
ingredient (a.i.) and the kind of formulation are listed on the product label.
Numbers in a product’s trade or brand name may also indicate the amount
of active ingredient it contains. For example, 80 WDG indicates that this
dry product contains 80% by weight of active ingredient and is a water-
dispersible granule. In this case, a 10-pound bag of product contains 8
pounds of a.i. and 2 pounds of inert ingredient. Liquid formulations usually
state the amount of a.i. in pounds per gallon. For example, 4F means 4
pounds of the a.i. per gallon in a flowable formulation. Some common
formulation abbreviations are listed in next ppt.
Abbreviations for Common Formulations
• A = Aerosol
• AF = Aqueous flowable
• B = Bait
• C = Concentrate
• D = Dust
• DF = Dry flowables
• EC = Emulsifiable concentrate
• F = Flowable
• G = Granules
• GL = Gel
• L = Liquid
• LC = Liquid concentrate
• LV = Low volatile
• M = Microencapsulated
Abbreviations for Common Formulations
• P = Pellets
• RTU = Ready-to-use
• S = Solution
• SP = Soluble powder
• ULV = Ultra-low volume
• W = Wettable powder
• WDG = Water-dispersible granules
• WP = Wettable powder
• WS = Water soluble
• WSC = Water-soluble concentrate
• WSL = Water-soluble liquid
• WSP = Water-soluble powder
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Most liquid formulations are diluted with water to make a finished spray. However, some
labels direct users to mix the product with another solvent such as crop oil or other light oil as
a carrier
Emulsifiable Concentrates (E or EC): An emulsifiable concentrate formulation usually
contains an oil-soluble liquid active ingredient, one or more petroleum-based solvents, and a
mixing agent. The mixing agent allows the formulation to be mixed with water to form an
emulsion. ECs are among the most versatile formulations. They are used against pests in
agricultural, ornamental and turf, forestry, structural, food processing, livestock, and public
health settings. ECs are adaptable to many types of application equipment, from small,
portable sprayers to hydraulic sprayers, low-volume ground sprayers, mist blowers, and low-
volume aircraft sprayers.
Advantages:
➢• Relatively easy to handle, transport, and store.
➢• Easy to pour and measure.
➢• Little agitation required; will not settle out or separate when equipment is running.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
➢ • Not abrasive; does not cause excessive equipment wear.
➢ • Will not usually plug screens or nozzles.
➢ • Leave little visible residue on treated surfaces.
Disadvantages:
➢ • High concentration of active ingredient(s) makes it easy to overdose or underdose through mixing
or calibration errors.
➢ May damage treated plants or surfaces (petroleum-based solvents or overdosing may cause
phytotoxicity).
➢ • Easily absorbed through skin of humans or animals.
➢ • Splashes and spills are relatively difficult to clean up and/or decontaminate.
➢ • Many have a strong odor.
➢ • Solvents may cause equipment “wear and tear.” For example, rubber or plastic hoses, gaskets,
pump parts, and other exposed surfaces may deteriorate.
➢ • May cause pitting or discoloration of painted finishes or other treated surfaces.
➢ • Flammable; should be used and stored away from heat or open flame.
➢ • May be corrosive.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Solutions (S): Some pesticide active ingredients dissolve readily in a liquid solvent,
such as water or a petroleum-based diluent. When mixed, they form a solution that
does not settle out or separate. Formulations of these pesticides usually contain the
active ingredient, solvent (carrier or diluent), and one or more other ingredients.
Solutions are suitable for any type of sprayer, indoors or outdoors. Consequently, they
are registered for many sites, including structural, institutional, public health, and
household pest control; livestock and poultry pest management; space sprays in barns
and warehouses; and treatment of food and fiber crops, turf, and ornamental plants
Ready-to-Use (RTU) : Low-Concentrate Solutions Ready-to-use formulations require
no further dilution before application. They consist of a small amount of active
ingredient (often 1% or less per unit volume). Some ready-to-use products contain
petroleum-based solvents; others are water-based. Many RTU products are produced
for pest management professionals (who treat structural and institutional pests) and
for nonoccupational users.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Advantages:
• Convenient; neither measuring nor mixing is required.
• Some are packaged and sold in— or with—an application device. If this is the case,
no loading is required.
• Less personal exposure risk due to reduced toxicity and handling
Disadvantages:
• Limited availability.
• High cost per unit of active ingredient.
The time saved and convenience of using RTU products may outweigh the product
cost.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Concentrate Solutions (C, LC, or WSC/WSL): Other solutions are available as
concentrates that require dilution with a liquid solvent before you apply them. Often
the solvent is water, but it may also be a refined oil or petroleum-based solvent. When
diluted with the label specified carrier, these formulations form true solutions.
Advantages:
➢• Relatively easy to handle, transport, and store; easy to pour and measure.
➢ • No agitation necessary.
➢• Not abrasive; do not cause excessive equipment wear.
➢ • Do not plug screens or nozzles.
➢• Do not usually leave visible residues on treated surfaces.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Disadvantages:
➢• Limited availability, especially water-based solutions.
➢ • Spills and splashes may be difficult to clean up and/or decontaminate.
➢Some are easily absorbed through skin of humans or animals.
The other benefits and drawbacks of concentrated solutions vary. They depend on the
concentration of active ingredient, solvent or diluent used, application site, and
application equipment.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Ultra-Low Volume: Ultra-low-volume concentrates have almost 100% active
ingredient. They are designed to be used “as it is” or diluted with only small quantities
of specified solvents. These special purpose formulations are most suitable for
outdoor applications, such as in agricultural, forestry, ornamental, and mosquito
control programs. ULV products are applied as very fine droplets at very low rates per
unit area (or volume).
Advantages:
• Relatively easy to handle, transport, and store.
• Little or no agitation required.
• Not abrasive to equipment.
• Do not plug screens and nozzles.
• Leave little visible residue on treated surfaces.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Disadvantages:
• High drift hazard due to small droplet size.
• Specialized equipment required.
• Easily absorbed through skin of humans or animals; high dermal and inhalation
exposure risk (concentrated product applied as fine droplets).
• Products and/or solvents may cause rubber or plastic hoses, gaskets, and pump parts
and other surfaces to deteriorate.
• Calibration and application must be performed with special care because ULV
products are applied in concentrated form.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Invert Emulsions: Invert emulsions contain a water soluble pesticide dispersed in an
oil carrier. These products require a special kind of emulsifier that allows the pesticide
to be mixed with a large volume of petroleum-based carrier, usually fuel oil. Invert
emulsions are less susceptible to drift because oil evaporates more slowly than water.
When applied on a hot, dry day, a water-based droplet will become smaller as the
water portion of the droplet evaporates. Invert emulsion droplets do not “shrink” as
rapidly when applied in the same weather conditions. This means less drift and more
pesticide on target. Invert emulsions are thick mixtures, with the consistency of
mayonnaise. In addition, invert emulsions are applied as very large droplets, which
reduce drift. The oil phase of this kind of formulation also serves as a sticker spreader.
This quality improves rainfast properties and surface coverage. It also increases
absorption and/or penetration. This, in turn, reduces loss due to runoff. Invert
emulsions are relatively uncommon. They are most often used in weed control on
rights-of-way to reduce the chance of drift to susceptible nontarget plants or sensitive
areas.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Advantages:
• Low drift.
• Increased rate of penetration and/or absorption.
• Increased rainfastness and reduced runoff.
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to treat the underside of foliage or other targets because droplets are large
and heavy.
• Limited availability.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
• Flowables (F or AF)
• Some active ingredients are in-soluble solids: substances that will not dissolve in
either water or oil. These may be formulated as flowables. (Most manufacturers use
the letter “F” by the trade name to designate that the formulation is a flowable.
However, some use the letter “L,” meaning that an insoluble material is presented in
“liquid” form.) Most flowables are prepared by first impregnating them onto a dry
carrier, such as clay. Then, the active ingredient plus carrier (or the active ingredient
alone) are ground into a fine powder. Next, the fine powder is suspended in a very
small amount of liquid (and perhaps other inert ingredients). The resulting product is
a thick liquid suspension.
• Flowables combine many of the characteristics of liquid emulsifiable concentrates
and dry wettable powders. They appear in the “Liquid Formulations” section because
the end-use product is a thick liquid. Flowables are often used for the same types of
pest control operations as ECs.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
• Advantages:
• • Easy to handle and apply; low exposure risk.
• • Generally not phytotoxic.
• • Seldom clog nozzles.
• Disdvantages:
• • May settle; need shaking before measuring and mixing.
• • Require moderate agitation.
• • • May leave a visible residue on treated surfaces.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
• Aerosols (A)
• Aerosol formulations contain one or more active ingredients and a solvent. Most
aerosols contain a low percentage of active ingredient. There are two types of
aerosol formulations:
• The ready-to-use type (often sold in pressurized sealed containers that serve as
application devices).
• • Those made for use in electric or gasoline-powered aerosol generators that release
the formulated product as a smoke or fog.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
• Ready-to-Use Aerosols
• Ready-to-use aerosol formulations are usually small, self-contained units that release
pesticide when the nozzle valve is triggered. An inert pressurized gas pushes the
pesticide through a fine opening when the gas is released, creating fine droplets.
These products are effective in greenhouses, in small areas inside buildings, or in
localized outdoor areas. Commercial models, which hold 5 to 10 pounds of pesticide,
are usually refillable.
• Advantages:
• • Easy to use; convenient.
• • Portable.
• • Easily stored.
• • Convenient way to buy and apply a small amount of pesticide.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
• Disadvantages:
• • Practical for only a few limited or specialized uses.
• • Risk of inhalation exposure.
• Hazardous if punctured, overheated, or used near an open flame.
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
• Formulations for Smoke or Fog Generators
• Formulations for smoke or fog generators are not packaged and sold under pressure.
They are used in machines that break the liquid formulation into a fine mist or fog
(aerosol). Using a heated surface, the machines produce and distribute very fine
droplets. These formulations are used mainly for insect control in structures such as
greenhouses, barns, and warehouses and for outdoor mosquito and biting fly control.
• Advantages:
• • Easy way to fill an entire space with pesticide.
• Disadvantages:
• • Highly specialized use sites and equipment.
• • Difficult to confine to target site or pest.
• • May require respiratory protection to prevent inhalation exposure.
DRY OR SOLID FORMULATIONS
• There are two general types of dry formulations. Some are ready-to-use. Others are
concentrates, which must be mixed with water and applied as a spray.
• Dusts (D)
• Most dust formulations are ready-to-use and contain a low percentage of active
ingredient (usually 10% or less by weight). A few dust formulations, however, are
concentrates and contain PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS a much higher percentage of
active ingredient. These concentrates must be mixed with dry inert carriers before
application.
• Dusts have one or more active ingredients plus a very fine, dry inert carrier made
from talc, chalk, clay, nut hulls, or volcanic ash. The size of individual dust particles
varies, but all are quite small. Due to their small size, dusts need careful handling to
prevent nontarget exposure, including drift. They are not water-soluble. Therefore,
do not mix them with a liquid solvent.
• Dusts are always used dry. They are often used as seed treatments and in some other
agricultural operations. Some ornamental and garden pest management products
aimed at homeowners are dust formulations. In structures, dust formulations are
useful to treat cracks and crevices and for spot treatments to control insect pests.
Dusts are also a good tool to control lice, fleas, and other external parasites on pets
and livestock. 5
• Special dusts known as tracking powders are effective for insect and rodent
monitoring and control. These products are finely ground dusts with an adsorbed
stomach poison. Insects and rodents walk through the dust, pick it up on their legs
and bodies or feet and fur, and ingest the poisonous dust when grooming.
• Advantages:
• • Usually ready-to-use; no mixing.
• • A good alternative where moisture from a spray might cause damage.
• • Applied with simple application equipment.
• Disadvantages:
• • Easily drift off target during application.
• • Residues do not adhere to treated surfaces, including foliage, as well as liquids do;
may easily wash off or blow away.
• • May irritate eyes, nose, throat, and skin; pose a relatively high inhalation exposure
risk to handlers.
• • Dampness may cause product to clump and equipment to clog; difficult to apply in
damp or humid environments.
• Granules (G)
• Granular formulations are similar to dust formulations; however, granular particles are larger and
heavier. Like dusts, they are not water-soluble. They are ready-to-use–not intended to be mixed with
water and applied as a liquid suspension. The coarse particles that serve as carriers for granular
formulations are adsorptive substances like clay or absorptive plant material such as ground corncobs
or walnut shells. The active ingredient either coats the outside of the granules or is absorbed into
them. The amount of active ingredient is relatively low, usually ranging from 1% to 15%.
• Because many granular formulations use carriers that absorb moisture, humidity will affect particle
size and mass. This, in turn, will affect flow rate. Also, different “batches” of the same formulation may
differ slightly in size or shape and density. For these reasons, you must calibrate granular application
devices often.
• Once applied , granules slowly release the adsorbed or absorbed active ingredient. Some require soil
moisture, rain, or watering to initiate the release of the active ingredient. Other granules do so as they
decompose.
• Granular pesticides are mostly used to apply chemicals to the soil, where they control weeds,
nematodes, and insects or are absorbed by plant roots. Most granular formulations are used to deliver
systemic pesticides. Granules are a common choice in many sites and situations.
• Aerial applicators sometimes use granular formulations to reduce drift or penetrate dense vegetation.
Granular formulations are also useful in aquatic situations to control mosquito larvae and aquatic
weeds.
• Advantages:
• • Ready-to-use; no mixing.
• • Drift hazard is low, and particles settle quickly.
• • Low applicator hazard: no spray; little dust.
• • Weight carries the formulation through foliage to soil or water target.
• • Applied with simple application equipment, such as seeders or fertilizer spreaders.
• • May break down more slowly than WPs or ECs because of a slow-release coating.
• Disadvantages:
• Application equipment is not as convenient to calibrate as spray equipment. Released
particles are measured by weight instead of by volume.
• • Uniform application may be difficult with some devices (e.g., rotary spreaders).
• • Granules do not stick to foliage or other uneven surfaces. For this reason, contact products
are rarely formulated this way.
• • May need to be incorporated into soil or planting medium.
• • May need moisture to release the active ingredient; may not be effective in drought
conditions.
• • May be hazardous to nontarget species, especially waterfowl and other birds. This is
because birds may feed on grain- or seed-like granules or mistake them for “grit” they need
to grind up their food.
• • Bulky; low percentage of active ingredient per unit volume.
• Pellets (P or PS)
• Most pellet formulations are very similar to granular formulations in their uses,
advantages, and disadvantages. However, in pellet formulations, all the particles are
more or less the same weight and shape. They are produced by combining the active
ingredient with inert materials to form a “slurry” —a thick liquid mixture. This
mixture is then extruded under pressure. As a result, pellets are round in cross
section and cut to a specific length. Because pellet particles are more uniform, you
can apply them with precision. However, in many cases, pellets are applied as spot
treatments. A few fumigants are formulated as pellets and are clearly labeled as such
to avoid confusing them with nonfumigant pellets.
• Wettable Powders (WP or W)
• Wettable powders are dry, finely ground solid materials. Most include wetting and/or
dispersing agents. Usually, they must be mixed with water and applied as a spray. A few
products, however, may be applied dry or as a liquid suspension.
• Wettable powders contain 5% to 95% active ingredient—usually 50% or more. Wettable
powder particles do not dissolve in water. When mixed with water, they form a suspension.
They will settle out quickly without constant agitation to keep them suspended.
• To prepare a spray suspension, you must form a slurry. Mix a WP with a small amount of
water, and then dilute this slurry mixture further. Wettable powders are effective for most
pest problems and in most types of spray equipment where agitation is possible. They have
excellent residual activity and do not usually harm treated surfaces. When you apply a WP
spray suspension to a target, most of the pesticide remains on the surface. This is true even
for porous materials, such as concrete, plaster, and untreated wood. In such cases, only the
water carrier penetrates the porous material. Wettable powder particles remain on the
treated surface.
• Advantages:
• • Easy to store, transport, and handle.
• • Less likely than ECs and other petroleum-based formulations to harm treated
plants, animals, and surfaces.
• • As a rule, not phytotoxic.
• • Less risk of skin and eye absorption than ECs and other liquid formulations.
• Disadvantages:
• • Not easy to measure; must be weighed.
• • Not easy to mix.
• • Inhalation hazard to applicator while measuring and mixing the concentrated
powder.
• • Suspended particles require good and constant agitation (usually mechanical) in the
spray tank and quickly settle out if agitation ceases.
• • Abrasive to pumps and nozzles; cause equipment wear.
• • Difficult to mix in very hard or very alkaline water.
• • If not mixed properly, may clog nozzles and screens.
• • Residues may be visible on treated surfaces.
Water-dispersible granular formulations are wettable powder formulations
compressed into dust-free, granule-sized particles. Most come with a product-specific
measuring device, with dry ounce (or pound) increment marks based on product
density (weight per unit volume). Because of this and the fact that they readily flow or
pour out of their containers, they are easier to measure and cleaner to handle than
WPs. Like wettable powders, water-dispersible granules are mixed with water and
applied as a spray suspension. Once in water, the granules break apart into fine
powder. The formulation requires constant agitation to keep it suspended in water.
Water-dispersible granules share the advantages and disadvantages of wettable
powders. However, WDGs have one added benefit: reduced handler exposure risk. This
is because WDGs/ DFs are:
• Made of larger, less “dusty” particles.
• Easier to remove from their container and measure.
• Soluble Powders (SP or WSP)
• Soluble powder formulations look like wettable powders. However, when mixed with
water, soluble powders dissolve readily in water and form a true solution. After a
thorough mixing, no additional agitation is necessary. The amount of active
ingredient in soluble powders ranges from 15% to 95%; it usually is more than 50%.
Soluble powders have all the advantages of WPs but only one of the disadvantages:
inhalation hazard during mixing. Not many pesticides are available in this formulation
because very few active ingredients dissolve in water.
• Baits (B)
• A bait formulation is an active ingredient mixed with food or another attractive
substance. The bait either attracts the pests or is placed where the pests will find it.
Many baits are solid (blocks, granules, or pellets), but some are liquids, pastes, or
gels. The amount of active ingredient in most bait formulations is quite low, usually
less than 5%.
• Baits are used inside buildings to control ants, cockroaches, flies, and other insects.
Outdoors, they can control vertebrate pests, such as rodents, other mammals, and
birds as well as snails, slugs, and some insects. Applicators must place bait stations in
safe, strategic locations while following label directions to protect children and
nontarget organisms.
• Advantages:
• • Ready-to-use.
• • Entire area need not be covered because pest goes to bait.
• • Control pests that move in and out of an area.
• Disadvantages:
• • May be attractive to children and pets.
• • May kill domestic animals and nontarget wildlife.
• • Require careful placement and inspection.
• • Pest may prefer the crop or other food to the bait.
• • Dead vertebrate pests may cause odor problems.
• • If baits are not removed after the pesticide stops working, they
• may serve as a food supply for the target pest or other pests.
• • May not work in situations where pests have many other food or water sources.
OTHER FORMULATIONS
Other formulations that:
• • Are not easily classified as liquid or dry/solid.
• • Are formulated and/or applied as gases.
• • Have some special packaging or delivery method.
• Fumigants
• Fumigants are pesticides that deliver the active ingredient to the target site in the
form of a gas. Some active ingredients are liquids when packaged under high
pressure but become gases when released. Other active ingredients are volatile
liquids. They may be enclosed in an ordinary container and not packaged under
pressure. Still others are solids that release gases after application in humid
conditions or in the presence of water or water vapor. Fumigants are used for
structural pest control, in food- and grain-storage facilities, and in regulatory pest
control at ports of entry and state and national borders. In agricultural pest control,
fumigants are effective in soil, greenhouses, and commodity storage areas (such as
grain bins).
OTHER FORMULATIONS
• Advantages:
• • Toxic to a wide range of pests.
• • Can penetrate cracks, crevices, wood, and tightly packed areas (such as soil or
grains).
• • A single treatment will usually kill most pests in the treated space.
• Disadvantages:
• • The target site must be enclosed or covered to prevent the gas from escaping.
• • Nonspecific and highly toxic to humans and all other organisms.
• • High inhalation exposure risk.
• • Most require the use of specialized personal protective equipment.
• May require the use of specialized application equipment.
• • Some have specific temperature requirements.
OTHER FORMULATIONS
• Microencapsulated Pesticides (M) : Microencapsulated pesticides are dry particles or liquid
droplets surrounded by a coating. Coatings may be plastic, starch, or some other material.
Microencapsulated pesticides are mixed with water and applied as a spray. Once applied, the
pesticide is released from the capsule. In some situations, the encapsulation process can
provide “timed” slow release of the active ingredient. Depending on the physical properties
of the coating, release of the pesticide active ingredient may be weather-dependent. If the
release is slower than normal (for example, due to dry or cool weather), residues may remain
on treated plants or surfaces longer than expected. As a result, some microencapsulated
products have relatively long restricted-entry or preharvest intervals. Some
microencapsulated pesticide products contain highly toxic materials with a coating to
increase handler safety. Others are microencapsulated for different reasons; for example, to
reduce staining or odor or to protect the active ingredient from photodegradation. Highly
toxic microencapsulated pesticides may be very hazardous to bees if the particles do not
break down quickly and are the same size as pollen grains. Foraging bees may collect them
and carry them back to the hive. Later, when the coatings break down and release the
pesticide, the colony may be poisoned. Some microencapsulated soil-applied products may
be more prone to leaching.
OTHER FORMULATIONS
• Advantages:
• • Coatings help protect the applicator.
• Fumigants are packaged in liquid and solid forms. Both turn into
poisonous gases when applied.
• • Easy to mix, handle, and apply.
• • Timed release of active ingredient prolongs effectiveness (i.e., may
result in fewer applications; application timing may be less critical).
• • Reduced volatility.
• • Reduced odor.
• • Less likely to stain or otherwise damage treated surfaces.
• Reduced phytotoxicity
OTHER FORMULATIONS
• Disdvantages:
• • Constant agitation may be necessary in spray tank (depending on the
properties of the coating).
• • Risk of injuring or killing bees (if the microencapsulated product is toxic
to them).
• • Long restricted-entry or preharvest intervals for highly toxic products.
OTHER FORMULATIONS
• Water-Soluble Packaging (WSB or WSP)
• More and more pesticide products are available in water-soluble bags
(WSBs). A special film packages a precise amount of wettable powder,
soluble powder, or gel containing the pesticide active ingredient(s).
When added to water in a spray tank, the bag dissolves and releases the
contents, which then are suspended or dissolved. This packaging method
reduces handle rexposure risk. It also simplifies measuring. However,
water-soluble packaging is just that—as a rule, it will not dissolve in
organic solvents or undiluted ECs. As a result, mixers and loaders must
follow label instructions when preparing a spray mixture. Store water-
soluble products in a dry place, and do not handle them with damp or
wet gloves.
OTHER FORMULATIONS
• Advantages:
• • Accurate premeasured unit doses.
• • Increased handler safety; greatly reduced exposure risk.
• • Lower risk of spills.
• Disadvantages:
• • Package size may not match volume of prepared solution needed and/or spray tank
volume.
• • May not be suitable for products applied in pounds or gallons of active ingredient
per acre, due to the size or number of packets required.
• • Must be kept dry—away from water or high humidity—until ready to use.
OTHER FORMULATIONS
• Impregnates
• Some pesticide products consist of a pesticide active ingredient
incorporated into a solid material, usually some kind of plastic. The
pesticide evaporates or is released over time, and the vapors control
nearby pests. Common examples include:
• • Livestock ear tags.
• • Plastic pest strips and adhesive tapes.
• • Pet collars.
• Fertilizers may also be impregnated with pesticides.
PESTICIDE MIXTURES
• Sometimes, product manufacturers combine pesticides with other pesticides or
fertilizers for sale as premixes. However, when premixes are not available (or are not
offered in the desired combination), you may combine products at the time of
application. Tank mixing—combining two or more crop-production products (pesticides
and/or fertilizers) and applying them at the same time—is convenient and cost-
effective. This practice can save the time, labor, fuel, and equipment wear involved in
multiple applications. Tank mixing also reduces soil compaction and the risk of
mechanical damage to crops or treated areas. Situations appropriate for tank mixing
include combining fungicides and insecticides to treat fruit trees or field crops. Another
common example is combining herbicides to increase the number of weed species
controlled (control spectrum). However, products must be compatible in order to be
tank-mixed.
• Applicators may mix:
• • Pesticide with fertilizer.
• • Two or more pesticides.
• When pesticides are tank-mixed, all of the dosages must be at or below the label rate
for each separate component of the mixture.
PESTICIDE MIXTURES
• Sometimes, product manufacturers combine pesticides with other pesticides or
fertilizers for sale as premixes. However, when premixes are not available (or are not
offered in the desired combination), you may combine products at the time of
application. Tank mixing—combining two or more crop-production products (pesticides
and/or fertilizers) and applying them at the same time—is convenient and cost-
effective. This practice can save the time, labor, fuel, and equipment wear involved in
multiple applications. Tank mixing also reduces soil compaction and the risk of
mechanical damage to crops or treated areas. Situations appropriate for tank mixing
include combining fungicides and insecticides to treat fruit trees or field crops. Another
common example is combining herbicides to increase the number of weed species
controlled (control spectrum). However, products must be compatible in order to be
tank-mixed.
• Applicators may mix:
• • Pesticide with fertilizer.
• • Two or more pesticides.
• When pesticides are tank-mixed, all of the dosages must be at or below the label rate
for each separate component of the mixture.
Formulation Ingredient
• An adjuvant is a chemical that can affect how a pesticide works.
Adjuvants:
• • Improve the action of a pesticide.
• • Change the characteristics of a pesticide formulation or a spray mixture (suspension
or solution).
Most end-use pesticide products, especially those that are applied to foliage, contain
adjuvants. However, in some situations, applicators may add them to a tank mix when
making a finished spray mixture. Many adjuvants increase effectiveness and/or safety.
Although they enhance the action of a pesticide or modify the properties of a spray
solution, adjuvants alone have no pesticidal activity. Use them to customize the product
or formulation for specific needs or to compensate for local conditions.
• Types of Adjuvants: There are many types of adjuvants. Here are some that are
commonly used:
• • Antifoaming (defoaming) agents —reduce foaming of spray mixtures that may result
from using some surfactants and/or from vigorous agitation.
• Buffers or pH modifiers—allow pesticides to be mixed with diluents or other
pesticides of different acidity or alkalinity. Most pesticide solutions or suspensions are
stable between pH 5.5 and 7.0 (slightly acidic to neutral). Water outside this range may
cause pesticides to degrade—very rapidly, in some cases. If you use a buffer, add it to
the spray tank water first and mix well. The water must be pH neutral or slightly acidic
to start, before adding pesticides or other adjuvants.
• Compatibility agents—help combine pesticides (or pesticides and fertilizers)
effectively; reduce or eliminate incompatibility.
• • Drift control additives (deposition aids)—reduce drift; increase average droplet size
and/or lower the number of “fines” (very small droplets) produced.
• Types of Adjuvants: There are many types of adjuvants. Here are some that are
commonly used:
• • Antifoaming (defoaming) agents —reduce foaming of spray mixtures that may result
from using some surfactants and/or from vigorous agitation.
• Buffers or pH modifiers—allow pesticides to be mixed with diluents or other
pesticides of different acidity or alkalinity. Most pesticide solutions or suspensions are
stable between pH 5.5 and 7.0 (slightly acidic to neutral). Water outside this range may
cause pesticides to degrade—very rapidly, in some cases. If you use a buffer, add it to
the spray tank water first and mix well. The water must be pH neutral or slightly acidic
to start, before adding pesticides or other adjuvants.
• Compatibility agents—help combine pesticides (or pesticides and fertilizers)
effectively; reduce or eliminate incompatibility.
• • Drift control additives (deposition aids)—reduce drift; increase average droplet size
and/or lower the number of “fines” (very small droplets) produced.
• Emulsifiers—allow petroleum-based pesticides (ECs) to mix with water.
• Extenders—keep pest icides active on a target for an extended period. Some
adjuvant manufacturers use this name for stickers.
• Invert emulsifiers—allow water-based pesticides to mix with petroleum carrier.
• Plant penetrants—allow the pesticide to pass through (penetrate) the outer
surface to the inside of treated foliage. Certain plant penetrants may increase
penetration on some—but not all—plant species.
• Safeners—reduce the toxicity of a pesticide formulation to the pesticide handler
or to the treated surface.
• Spreader—allow pesticide to form a uniform coating layer over the treated
surface.
• Stickers—allow pesticide to stay on a treated surface. Some types of
stickers increase adhesion of solid particles to a treated sur face. This
reduces the amount of pesticide that washes off due to rain or irrigation.
Others reduce evaporation and/ or slow photodegradation.
• Thickeners—increase viscosity (thickness) of spray mixtures. Thickeners
may reduce drift and/or slow evaporation. (Slowing evaporation is useful
when applying systemic pesticides. It increases the time during which the
active ingredient can be absorbed by or penetrate plant foliage.)
• Wetting agents—allow wettable powders to mix with water.
• Stickers—allow pesticide to stay on a treated surface. Some types of
stickers increase adhesion of solid particles to a treated sur face. This
reduces the amount of pesticide that washes off due to rain or irrigation.
Others reduce evaporation and/ or slow photodegradation.
• Thickeners—increase viscosity (thickness) of spray mixtures. Thickeners
may reduce drift and/or slow evaporation. (Slowing evaporation is useful
when applying systemic pesticides. It increases the time during which the
active ingredient can be absorbed by or penetrate plant foliage.)
• Wetting agents—allow wettable powders to mix with water.
• Surfactants: Some of the most common adjuvants are surfactants, which
alter the dispersing, spreading, and wetting properties of spray droplets.
Examples of surfactants are wetting agents and spreaders. These products
physically change the surface tension of a spray droplet. In order to
perform well, some pesticide sprays must be able to wet treated foliage
thoroughly and evenly. Surfactants that reduce surface tension enable
droplets to spread out instead of bead up. This results in better coverage
and increases the odds that the pest will contact the pesticide. Surfactants
are particularly helpful when treating plants with waxy or hairy leaves.
• Surfactants are classified by how they split apart into charged
atoms or molecules, called ions.
• Anionic surfactants have a negative charge. They are most often used
with contact pesticides, which control the pest by direct contact instead of
being absorbed systemically.
• Cationic surfactants have a positive charge. Do not use them as
“stand-alone” surfactants—often, they are phytotoxic.
• Nonionic surfactants have no electrical charge. They are often used
with systemic products and help sprays penetrate plant cuticles. They are
compatible with most pesticide products.
• Surfactants are classified by how they split apart into charged
atoms or molecules, called ions.
• Anionic surfactants have a negative charge. They are most often used
with contact pesticides, which control the pest by direct contact instead of
being absorbed systemically.
• Cationic surfactants have a positive charge. Do not use them as
“stand-alone” surfactants—often, they are phytotoxic.
• Nonionic surfactants have no electrical charge. They are often used
with systemic products and help sprays penetrate plant cuticles. They are
compatible with most pesticide products.
• A pesticide can behave very differently in the presence of an
anionic, cationic, or nonionic surfactant. For this reason, follow
HLB value when choosing one of these additives. Selecting the
wrong surfactant can reduce efficacy and damage treated plants
or surfaces.
• The terms used when talking about pesticide additives can be confusing.
People sometimes use the words “adjuvant” and “surfactant”
interchangeably. However, an adjuvant is ANY substance added to modify
properties of a pesticide formulation or finished spray. A surfactant is a
specific kind of adjuvant—one that affects the interaction of a spray
droplet and a treated surface. All surfactants are adjuvants, but not all
adjuvants are surfactants. For example, drift control additives and safeners
are not surfactants.

Pesticide 1 4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pesticide 1 4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemical Pesticides

5. Phenyl amides (Fungicide): Carbanilates

7. Trazines (Herbicide): Atrazine, Simazine, Ametryn, Atratone, Chlorazine,

8. Benzoic acid (Herbicide): Dicamba, Dichlorobenil, Chloroambin, Tricamba,

Persistence in environment:High Persistence Half

WHO classification based on rat oral LD50:

Structure: Use: Acaricide, Insecticide

WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Slightly hazardous

2 (C2H5O)2P(S)SH + 3 Cl2 → 2 (C2H5O)2P(S)Cl + S2Cl2 + 2 HCl

Mode of Action: Carbofuran is a broad spectrum carbamate pesticide that kills

- Carbofuran degrades fairly slowly in non-sterile, neutral, or acid aerobic soils,

Accumulation of carbaryl can occur in catfish, crawfish, and snails, as well

• There are many more pesticides used in agricultural practice. Heavy

3. Benzoic acid: Benzoic acid herbicides include dicamba, dichlobenil, chlorambin,

1. Pesticides are used to ensure better protection against unpredictable losses

• (I) According to their mode of entry:

Use of Oil: (I) As a insecticide carrier and (II) As insecticides themselves

Biochemical pesticides: pesticides based on naturally occurring substances

You might also like