SUBJECT FORENSIC SCIENCE

Paper No. and Title PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

Module No. and Title MODULE No. 12: Pesticides-II

Module Tag FSC_P10_M12

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Learning Outcomes

2. Introduction

3. Rodenticides

4. Fungicides

5. Nematicides

6. Acaricides

7. Molluscicides

8. Extraction of Pesticides

9. Summary

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to know about –
 Some unconventional Pesticides, which are used for specific categories of living
organism.
 Their Mode of Actions and pharmacodynamics.
 The methods of extraction of Pesticides.

2. Introduction
Pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances intended to prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate
a pest. In general, pesticides are classified according to their biological targets. Because of the
physiological and biochemical similarities of target species and mammalian organisms, an
inherent toxicity is associated with pesticides in mammalian organisms. In addition, within
each classification, compounds are identified according to mechanism of action, chemical
structure, or semi-synthetic source. Conventional Pesticides deals with common insects but
there are other pests which are also a menace. To come across with those pests it is necessary
to invent specific category pesticides.

3. Rodenticides
These are the chemical compounds which exterminate rats, mice, moles, and other rodents.
Thallium, Zinc and Aluminium Phosphide, vacor, phosphorus, alpha-naphthyl-thiourea,
cholecalciferol, arsenic, barium carbonate, bromethalin, fluoroacetamide, sodium
monofluoroacetamide, Red Squill, strychnine are some of the examples of common
Rodenticides. Some of these are very commonly involved in human poisoning, e.g.
phosphorus, Zinc and aluminium phosphide, long acting anticoagulants.

4. Fungicides
These are compounds which kills fungus and moulds. The examples of fungicides are
thiocarbamates, captan, captafol, bavistin, vitavax, hexachlorobenzene, and sodium azide.
Thiocarbamates has an extensive range of specimens which includes benomyl, benthiocarb (or
thiobenzcarb), cycloate, diallate, ferbam, molinate, thiram, thiophanate, triallate, zineb and
ziram. Carbendazim (carbendazole), ETU, mancozeb, maneb, and vondozeb are benzimidazole
(ethylene bis di-thio carbamate or ethylene thiourea) compounds that are also used as
fungicides. These compounds have relatively low toxicity. They do not hinder
acetylcholinesterase (unlike carbamates). Formulations of these compounds are broadly used
for pest control in home gardens and in commercial agriculture.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 5. Nematicides
These are compounds which exterminates nematodes (i.e. worms). It exclusive example is
Ethylene Dibromide. Basically, Ethylene Dibromide type fumigants are applied to control
rodents, nematodes, insects, weed seeds, and fungi anywhere in the soil, structures, crop,
grains, and commodities. Historically, diverse chemical classes have been used as fumigants,
but only a few remained in use today. Most fumigants were abandoned because of their
toxicity, many of which were halogenated solvents. The discontinued halogenated
hydrocarbons includes Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4), Chloroform, dibromochloropropane, 1, 2-
dichloropropane, ethylene dibromide, and ethylene dichloride.

Ethylene dibromide was previously approved for use as a fumigant to protect against insects,
pests, and nematodes in citrus, vegetable, and grain crops, and as a fumigant for turf,
particularly on golf courses. In 1984, the Environment Protection Agency (EPA) banned its
usage as a soil and grain fumigant. Unfortunately, in India, it continues to be used widely,
causing human poisoning not infrequently.

6. Acaricides
Acaricide is a pesticide deliberated to control harmful species of mites. In crop protection
practices, acaricides are used against phytophagous mites, pests affecting economic harms to
agricultural crops and decorative plants. These are complexes which exterminates mites, ticks
and spiders. Spider mites, generally polyphagous species, are common pests in modern
agroecosystems worldwide, and some of them are among the most important crop pests.
Phytophagous mites nourish on the liquid content of plant cells, thus disturbing the physiology
of a host plant and causing various damages to plant tissues and organs, while some of the
species can also act as vectors of plant viruses. In spite of comparatively small size, plant-
feeding mites can cause significant damage in crop yield and quality losses, because they have
short life span and under favourable conditions their populations quickly reach high abundance.
Examples of Acaricides are Azobenzene, Chlorobenzilate, Tedion, and Kelthane. They are
rarely encountered in human poisoning.

7. Molluscicides
These are the compounds which are capable of killing molluscs such as snails and slugs. e.g.,
Metaldehyde which is a tetramer compound with an eight member ring containing aldehyde
molecules and also a cyclic polymer of acetaldehyde. Metaldehyde is a popular molluscicide
being effective against snails and slugs. It is a tasteless substance with a mild characteristic
odour. Instances of poisoning is however rare. It is a local irritant on skin and mucous
membrane and a systemic convulsant. Metaldehyde overdosage results in lethargy, severe
abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, hyperthermia, seizures, coma, and death.
Profound hyperthermia may occur in association with seizures. Inhalation of metaldehyde
fumes may cause CNS depression. The probable lethal dose LD50 is in the range of 100 mg/kg
for adults.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 8. Extraction of Pesticides
The extraction of pesticides in biological materials like viscera, stomach contents, gastric
lavage and blood is much meticulous due to the interferences of fat, degraded protein and
coloring matter in the matrices. The extracts involve appropriate clean-up except for Micellar
method. The extractions in case of non-biological matrices are less cumbersome and needs
either slight clean-up or even no clean-up. The methods described hereunder are based on
solvent extraction cum shedding under diverse conditions viz. nature and condition of matrices,
use of organic solvent etc.

A. Method- I: Sodium Sulphate and n- Hexane Method

Biological materials (viscera, stomach content or gastric lavage etc.) are macerated into fine
slurry by mixing with equal amount of anhydrous Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) and relocated
into a conical flask with an air condenser. 50 ml of n-hexane is added to the flask and heated on
a hot water bath for one hour. The contents are cooled and filtered. The remaining slurry is
extracted twice with 25 ml portion of n-hexane. The filtered n-hexane fractions are combined
and taken into a separating funnel. This hexane layer is vigorously shaken with 15 ml, 10 ml
and again 10 ml portion of acetonitrile, which are previously saturated with n-hexane. The
acetonitrile layers are mixed and taken into another clean separating funnel and diluted 10
times with distilled water. 25 ml of saturated Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) solution is added to it
and extracted thrice with 25 ml portion of n-hexane.
The n-hexane layers are combined, concentrated to 5 ml by evaporating on water bath and 5
gms of anhydrous Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) is added. The extract is evaporated as and when
required for analysis.

B. Method-II: Sodium Sulphate and Acetone Method

50 gm of macerated tissues or biological materials are mixed with equal amount of anhydrous
Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) and 100 ml of Acetone in a conical flask and then refluxed on hot
water bath for one hour. After cooling, the acetone extract is filtered. The residue is extracted
twice with further 50 ml portion of acetone. The acetone fractions are combined and
concentrated by evaporation up to 50 ml for further processing (cleanup). The above acetone
extract (50 ml) is taken into a separating funnel and diluted with 150 ml of water. 20 ml of
saturated solution of Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) is added to the same. The contents are
extracted thrice with 25 ml portions of chloroform with gentle shaking. The chloroform
extracts are combined, washed with water-acetone mixture (1:1) and finally with 50 ml of
water. The washed chloroform layer is passed through anhydrous Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4)
and then evaporated to dryness by passing air.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 C. Method- III: Extraction of Pesticides in stomach-wash, urine and vomit

The sample (20 ml of stomach wash or urine or 10- 20 gm of vomit) is taken in a conical flask.
50 ml of n-hexane is added. It is refluxed on a water bath for half-an-hour. After cooling, the
liquid is filtered, mixed with 20 ml of n-hexane and taken in a separating funnel. The n-hexane
layer is separated; passed through anhydrous Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) and evaporated to
dryness by passing a current of dry air through it.

D. Method-IV: Extraction of Pesticides in Blood

20 ml of blood is mixed with 10 ml of 10% Sodium Tungstate solution and 15 ml of 1N

Sulphuric Acid, shaken for two minutes and then filtered. The filtrate is kept reserved. The
residue is washed with two 15 ml portions of 0.1N Sulphuric Acid. The washings are collected,
mixed with filtrate (kept reserved), transferred into a separating funnel and extracted thrice with
20 ml portion of n-hexane. The hexane layers are combined and passed through anhydrous
Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) and the solvent is removed by passing a stream of air as stated in the
previous methods.

E. Method-V: Direct Solvent Extraction

The biological materials (50 gms. of viscera) are mixed with 5 gm of Ammonium Sulphate and
homogenized. After addition of 100 ml of diethyl ether, the mixture is shaken at intervals and
kept overnight. It is filtered and concentrated as before. The concentrated extract is cleaned up
by passing through a chromatographic column (diameter 2.5cm) containing three successive
layers of different lengths viz. 5cm layer of alumina (top layer), 2.5cm of activated charcoal
(middle) and 2.5cm layer of anhydrous Sodium Sulphate (bottom) previously washed with
ether. The resulting elute is evaporated to dryness as before.

F. Method-VI: Steam Distillation cum Solvent Extraction

When the biological materials are clean and purified i.e. less degraded and contains very little
fat and colouring matter, the following method may be adopted. 50 gm of biological material is
treated with a few drops of Phosphoric Acid and steam distilled for 15 minutes. The distillate
(100 ml) is collected and subjected to solvent extraction with 100 ml of Diethyl Ether in 20 ml
portion. The ethereal layers are collected during extractions, combined and subjected to clean
up by passing through chromatographic column as discussed before.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 G. Method-VII: Isolation of Pesticides in Non-biological Materials

Matrices: 20-25 gms of rice or more, if available, or 100 ml of drinking water or tea or coffee or
milk, or wearing apparel (20-25 round pieces cut out from fabric, each of 2.5cm diameter), or
20-25 gms of soil, sand, grains or cereals. For the above materials, Direct Solvent Extraction is
carried out with 50-100 ml of diethyl ether without adding Ammonium Sulphate. The ethereal extract is
concentrated to 20 ml and cleaned up by column chromatography as stated above. The ethereal extract is
collected, evaporated to dryness by passing stream of air.

H. Method – VIII: Micellar Extraction in Biological Matrices

50 gm of biological material (viscera) is mixed with 5 gm of Ammonium Sulphate and

homogenized. After addition of 100 ml of diethyl ether, the mixture is shaken at intervals, kept
overnight and filtered. The ethereal extract is taken into a separating funnel. 10 mg of Sodium
Lauryl Sulphate is added and stirred gently. On settling, fat in liquid and semi-solid form is
separated and taken off from the system. The addition of surfactant is continued till all the fatty
materials and proteins are separated and settled at the bottom.

The end-point is indicated by a change of dark colour of ethereal layer to colourless. The
ethereal extract is shaken with 25 ml portion of water twice gently. The ethereal layer is
collected. In case of emulsion formation, ethereal layer is collected by breaking the emulsion
with excess ether and gentle stirring. The collected ethereal layer in dried over anhydrous
Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) to remove traces of water. The ethereal layer is decanted and
evaporated to dryness as before.

I. Method- IX: Extraction of Pesticides in Fruits, Vegetables, Butter Fat by Universal

Trace Residue Extractor
The sample is extracted by direct solvent extraction with dichloromethane. The extract is dried
over granular anhydrous Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) in a column. The dried extract thus
obtained is concentrated by a stream of nitrogen. The concentrated extract is then subjected to
sweep co-distillation in the Universal Trace Residue Extractor at 230 oC for 30 minutes by
passing nitrogen (230 ml / min) and using Sodium Sulphate: 10% florisil (1:1). Elution is made
by 5 ml of 10% acetone in hexane or 5 ml of dichloromethane. The extract is collected for
analysis. The applications of this method to different pesticides for their analysis in biological
matrices require further standardization to set up optimum analytical conditions to cover
different classes of pesticides.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 J. Method- X: Extraction of Pesticides in Sediment, Soil, Dry Waste and Tissue by
Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE)

The sample is mixed thoroughly or passed through a 1 mm sieve. Sufficient sample is

introduced into the grinding apparatus to yield at least 10-20 gm after grinding. The sample is
air dried at room temperature for 48 hours in a glass tray or on hexane cleaned aluminum foil.
The drying may also be made by mixing with anhydrous Sodium Sulphate until a free flowing
powder is obtained. Air drying is not recommended for volatile pesticides. Sticky, fibrous or
oily materials not responsive to grinding and either be cut, shredded or otherwise separated to
allow mixing. These may be grinded after mixing with anhydrous Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4)
1:1 proportion.

A cellulose disk is placed at the outlet and end of the extraction cell. Either 10 gm of each
sample in 11 ml or 20 gm of each sample in 22 ml is taken in the extraction cell. Surrogate
spikes and matrix spikes may be added to the appropriate sample cell. The extraction cells were
placed into the auto-sample tray and the collection trays are loaded in appropriate number (up to
24). The tray is loaded with 40 ml pre-cleaned, clapped vials with septa. The conditions for
extraction in ASE are set for extraction of pesticides by using acetone: hexane (1: 1, v/v) as the
solvent. The operating conditions include oven temperature of 100ºC, pressure at 1500 psi, oven
heat time and static time each of 5 minutes and flush volume in the proportion of 60% of
extraction cell volume. The extracts are collected for analysis. The method has been validated
for analysis of pesticides in soil, sediment, dry wastes and fish tissues. However, further
standardization is required for application of ASE to biological matrices in forensic
toxicological work.

K. Method- XI: Sweep Co-distillation

This is a special type of distillation based on the preferential volatilization of organic

compounds specially pesticides from oil, lipids or plant extracts, using a stream of inert gas and
subsequent isolation of volatiles on cold traps or solid adsorbent. It is a purge and trap
technique involving dispersion of the sample in thin films on deactivated glass beads or florisil
or alumina or silica gel or tenax as trapping media at elevated temperatures. Universal Trace
Residue Extractor (UNITREX) and Accelerated Solvent Extractor (ASE) i.e. the highly
automatic extraction system for rapid extractions of multiple samples work on this principle.

L. Method- XII: Micellar Extraction

Micellar extraction is a special type of extraction procedure that appears to be unique in the
separation of drugs, plant poisons and pesticides in biological matrices (viscera). In the
extraction of active constituents as above, micellar environment of surfactant of different
classes is employed. Surfactants or surface active agents at a particular concentration in solution
known as Critical Micellar Concentration (CMC) form micelle or association colloid. At this
concentration or above, marked changes in the properties viz. viscosity, conductance, and
electrical conductance are exhibited.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 Surfactant in solution also acts at the interface of two phase system of oil and water or organic
solvent and water resulting solubilisation of one phase into the other. Biological matrices
(Viscera) contain fats, degraded protein and colouring matter etc. makes the extraction of active
constituent difficult. In the solvent extraction process, if surfactant is added to the extractant
(organic solvent), deproteinization and also solubilisation with the formation of emulsion will
occur due to micellar interaction. The emulsion thus formed is due to solubilisation of fat in
biological matrices in the added solvent (containing traces of water). Simultaneous formation of
emulsion occurs due to micellar interactions. The emulsion thus formed due to solubilisation is
destabilized on increasing the concentration of surfactant in the system.

As a result, fats are separated as semisolid material due to lowering of zeta potential between
the electrical double layers of the colloidal system. As protein and fats are separated out, the
supernatant liquid containing active constituent may be extracted for poison by organic
solvents. The detailed analytical conditions have also been presented at appropriate places in
this manual.

M. Method- XIII: Microwave Accelerated Reaction System

The method of extraction is used for isolating pesticides in biological materials especially in
liver and kidneys. In this process, the sample is subjected to rapid heating with organic solvent
by microwaves at elevated pressure resulting isolation of active constituent. The biological
material (5– 10 gms.) is placed inside a microwave transparent vessel with a polar solvent or
ionic solution (usually an acid) and is subjected to rapid heating by microwave in a Microwave
Accelerated Reaction System (digester).

The analytical conditions (temp., time of digestion, pressure) may vary depending on active
constituent and nature of sample viz. Monocrotophos and Phosphamidon are successfully
extracted within 15-20 minutes from viscera using dichloromethane as a solvent at 80-100°C
and 100 psi. However, optimization of analytical conditions to cover different classes of
pesticides is required for a rapid extraction by this method.

N. Method- XIV: Universal Trace Residue Extraction

It’s a system that has been developed for the recovery of pesticides and organic residue from a
wide range of samples including biological materials. It is based on the principle of sweep co-
distillation that relies on preferential volatilization of pesticides or other organic chemicals from
biological materials, lipids, plant extracts using a stream of inert gas and subsequent isolation of
volatiles on cold traps of solid adsorbents. It is a purge and trap technique involving dispersion
of the sample in thin films on deactivated glass beads at elevated temperatures.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 The extractor system is specifically designed to recover volatile, thermally stable
organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticides from lipids, meat, butter, viscera etc. At
present, the distillation tube does not contain glass beads or glass wool as it renders less
recovery. Florisil in conjunction with Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) has been found satisfactory
for trapping many different classes of volatile organic compounds Alumina, Silica gel and
Tenax are materials that have potential for use as trapping media with advantages over Florisil
in specific applications. The method is expected to fail for thermally labile pesticides as the
consumption of solvent is minimum. The method requires optimization of analytical conditions
before its application to biological samples (viscera) in forensic cases.

O. Method- XV: Accelerated Solvent Extraction

The name of method signifies multiple sample handling in a very short time by a very updated
extraction system which also works on the same principle as Universal Trace Residue Extractor
i.e. Sweep Co-distillation. In this method, a commonly used solvent is pumped into an
extraction cell containing the sample which is then brought to an elevated temperature and
pressure. Minutes later, the extract is transferred from the heated cell to a standard collection
vial for cleanup analysis. The entire extraction process is fully automated and performed in
minutes for fast and easy extraction of multiple samples with a very minimum solvent
consumption. The standard or optimum analytical conditions are to be arrived for its application
to biological matrices in forensic toxicological work covering a broad spectrum of pesticides.
However, the method has been found to be effective for soil samples.

P. Method- XVI: Super Fluid Critical Extraction (SFCE)

Gases above their critical pressure and temperature are in a supercritical state, intermediate
between that of a gas and liquid. Supercritical fluids have strong extraction properties because
the solubility of compounds in fluid is close to that of a true solvent and much lower viscosity
allows it to percolate through packed bed of sample. Thus, not only there is an efficient contact
between the extracting fluid and the sample but the fluid is easily removed when it is released
from its supercritical state.

Carbon dioxide is nearly always the chosen gas for SFC in view of its innocuous nature and
mild critical condition namely critical pressure of 75 bars and a critical temperature of 310C
which are relatively easy to achieve at present.

The sample holder is composed of a number of small stainless steel cartridges, which are filled
with the sample in a particular state. Solid sample such as soil or sediment are packed into the
cartridges without any pretreatment and aqueous samples can be flashed through the cartridges
filled with an appropriate adsorbent to concentrate all of the contaminates. The cartridges are
subsequently fed into the extraction oven and the carrier gas line which at this stage consists of
supercritical carbon dioxide.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II
 The extracted compounds are carried to the cold trap and condensed after the heated
constriction which restores carbon dioxide to its true gaseous state. After the appropriate
extraction period, the circulation of coolant ceases and trap is rapidly heated to vaporize the
components. At the same time the column temperature is programmed according to the required
condition. The adjustable split partitions the sample size to avoid the possibility of overloading
effect. SFC is suitable for extraction of pesticide traces in solid and aqueous samples.

9. Summary

 It is well established that Pesticide poisoning is a threat to the society though accidental but
the requirement of overcoming from the problem is necessary.

 Forensically, the emphasis is upon the detection of the substance used for the poisoning
case so as to ensure the nature of the crime, i.e., either Suicidal or Accidental.

 There are several preliminary tests as well as further confirmatory tests for the detection of
pesticides in a given biological or non- biological matrices.

 But the completion of those tests exclusively depends upon the extraction processes else the
tests would be ineffective.

 Besides, the tests mentioned above many instrumental methods are available which
includes, Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), High Performance Liquid Chromatography
(HPLC), High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC), Gas Chromatography
(GC), etc.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.10: Forensic Toxicology

MODULE No.12: Pesticides-II