materials
Article
Analysis of Basic Physical and Chemical Characteristics
of Manganese Slag before and after Solidification and
Its Feasibility as Highway Slope
Meng Chen 1 , Jianming Wei 1, *, Runhua Zhang 2 , Lipei Jia 1 , Qiqi Yao 1 and Anchao Han 1






Citation: Chen, M.; Wei, J.; Zhang, R.;
Jia, L.; Yao, Q.; Han, A. Analysis of
Basic Physical and Chemical
Characteristics of Manganese Slag
before and after Solidification and Its
Feasibility as Highway Slope.
Materials 2021, 14, 5530. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma14195530
Academic Editors: F. Pacheco Torgal
and Jan Fořt
Received: 27 July 2021
Accepted: 16 September 2021
Published: 24 September 2021
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with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
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conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Materials 2021, 14, 5530. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195530
1 College of Civil Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China;
chenmeng@mails.cqjtu.edu.cn (M.C.); 622180111064@mails.cqjtu.edu.cn (L.J.);
622180111019@mails.cqjtu.edu.cn (Q.Y.); hananchao2021@163.com (A.H.)
2 College of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, W161 Kingsbury Hall,
33 Academic Way, Durham, NH 03824, USA; runhua.zhang@unh.edu
* Correspondence: 622190951096@mails.cqjtu.edu.cn
Abstract: Manganese slag is a kind of industrial waste produced by electrolytic production of
manganese metal. The traditional method of stacking manganese slag not only causes waste of
resources, but also produces environmental pollution. Finding harmless, effective, and economical
disposal technology of manganese slag has gradually become a research hotspot and difficulty in the
field of electrolytic manganese industry and environmental protection. To verify the feasibility of
using manganese slag as roadbed material, the basic physical and chemical properties of manganese
slag were analyzed based on X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence spectrum, SEM scanning electron
microscope, and particle analysis, the basic engineering characteristics of raw materials of manganese
slag and solidified manganese slag mixed with quicklime were analyzed through a compaction
test and a CBR test. Finally, based on the Monte Carlo method, the stability of a highway slope in
the Guizhou Province of China is simulated by the finite element method, considering the spatial
variability of manganese slag material strength parameters. The results show that the solidified
manganese slag material can be used as highway subgrade material. This study has important
reference significance for manganese slag highway construction projects.
Keywords: manganese slag; physical and chemical properties; engineering characteristics; Monte
Carlo simulation; slope stability
1. Introduction
Electrolytic manganese metal is an important metallurgical and chemical raw material,
which is widely used in metal alloys, electronic devices, power batteries, construction,
sewage treatment, pharmaceuticals, and other industries [1–4]. It is an important basic
material and national strategic resource in the national economy [5,6]. Electrolytic man-
ganese slag is a mixture of acid leaching slag, sulfide slag, and anode slag [7]. There are
many heavy metals in electrolytic manganese slag. These heavy metals are transformed
through the changes in the natural environment, and the adverse effects on the surrounding
people’s health and ecological environment are persistent [8,9]. China is a major producer
of manganese slag [10]. In China, manganese slag is mainly stored in wet dams. This
not only takes up precious land, but also produces excessive ammonia nitrogen, sulfate,
and other harmful heavy metal ions [11], causing serious pollution to the surrounding
soil [12], and heavy metals, etc., easily penetrate into the soil, groundwater, and surface
water, causing serious environmental pollution and safety risks to aquatic ecosystems and
agricultural ecosystems [13], and eventually manganese residue enters the human body
through the role of the food chain, affecting human health. At the same time, under the
influence of wind and sun, some manganese slag is scattered in the air, which pollutes the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2021, 14, 5530 2 of 17

surrounding atmospheric environment [14]. A large amount of manganese slag has caused
serious social and environmental pollution problems in China, such as water pollution,
heavy metal pollution, residue accumulation and solid waste pollution [15,16], etc., Geoff
et al. [17] found that an old waste dump can cause potential heavy metal pollution to the
ecosystem by analyzing the accident of a tailings dam rupture. Ran et al. [18] analyzed the
sources, spatial distribution of metal(loid)s, and the risks to public health at an abandoned
arsenic mine site. Therefore, exploring the use of industrial waste residue as a subgrade
filler has become the focus of scholars in recent years. Electrolytic manganese residue
(EMR), red mud (RM), and carbide slag (CS) are three kinds of solid waste that are largely
produced and difficult to recycle. At present, the utilization of these three types of waste
residues is mainly focused on the preparation of building materials. For example, EMR
is used in autoclaved bricks, ecological cement, geopolymer; RM is used to replace clay
for non-burned brick, road materials, and cementitious material; while CS can be used
as an alternative for limestone in cement production, or xonotlite [19]. At the same time,
landfilling or open-air accumulation is the main disposal method of these residues, which
causes harm to the soil and groundwater, thereby harming the ecological environment.
Recycling and reusing them can effectively protect the environment. Zhang et al. [19]
used electrolytic manganese slag, red mud and calcium carbide slag as road materials,
and investigated their mechanical properties, durability, strength formation mechanism
and environmental behavior. Using manganese slag as subgrade material and reasonably
recycling manganese slag materials cannot only solve the problems of manganese slag
storage, environmental pollution and land occupation, but it can reduce the production
cost and bring considerable ecological and social benefits.
In this study, the basic physical and chemical characteristics of manganese slag were
analyzed based on X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence spectrum, SEM scanning electron
microscope, and particle analysis test. The basic engineering characteristics of raw materials
of manganese slag and solidified manganese slag mixed with quicklime are analyzed
through a compaction test and a CBR test. Considering the spatial variation in manganese
slag material strength parameters, the stability of a highway slope was simulated by
the finite element method. This study has important reference significance for highway
construction projects using manganese slag.

2. Experimental Study
2.1. Basic Physical and Chemical Properties of Manganese Slag
2.1.1. X-ray Diffraction Analysis
The principle of XRD is that X-ray irradiates atoms and molecules in the crystal to
produce a diffraction phenomenon, and the diffraction law follows the Bragg’s Law:

2dsinθ = nλ (1)

where d is the crystal plane spacing, θ is the diffraction angle, λ is the X-ray wavelength,
and n is the integer. Through the Bragg’s Law, we can use the known X-ray to diffract the
crystal with an unknown structure, and use the diffraction angle to calculate the crystal
plane spacing, and then we can determine the crystal type and structure of the object to
be measured. Escalab250xi X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific
Company, 81 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02454, USA) produced by Thermo Fisher
Scientific Company of the United States was used in the X-ray diffraction analysis test. The
main technical specifications of the instrument are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Main technical specifications of X-ray photoelectron spectrometer.

Vacuum Degree of Optimal Energy Minimum Spatial

Electronic Counting Rate Sensitivity
Analysis Chamber Resolution Resolution
5 × 10−10 mbar 0.43 eV 1 µm 4 Mcps 1,000,000
 Table 1. Main technical specifications of X-ray photoelectron spectrometer.

Vacuum Degree of Analysis Optimal Energy Reso- Minimum Spatial Reso- Electronic Counting
Materials 2021, 14, 5530 Sensitivity3 of 17
Chamber lution lution Rate
5 × 10 mbar
−10 0.43 eV 1 μm 4 Mcps 1,000,000

The
TheXRD
XRDpattern
patternofofmanganese
manganeseslagslagobtained
obtainedby bythe
theXRD
XRDtest
testisisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure1.1.
According
According to the qualitative
qualitativeanalysis
analysisofofthe
theXRD
XRDpattern,
pattern,there
there are
are sixsix types
types of of character-
characteristic
istic
peakspeaks in manganese
in manganese slag,slag, among
among whichwhich quartz
quartz is the
is the mostmost prominent,
prominent, indicating
indicating thatthat
the
the crystallinity
crystallinity of quartz
of quartz in manganese
in manganese slagslag is higher.
is higher.

XRDpattern
Figure1.1.XRD
Figure patternof
ofmanganese
manganeseslag.
slag.

The second
The second characteristic
characteristic peak
peak is
is hemihydrate
hemihydrate gypsum
gypsum(CaSO(CaSO4 -(H O)0.5),),which
4-(H220)0.5
which is
is
mainly formed by the reaction of CaMn(CO ) and CaCO in manganese
mainly formed by the reaction of CaMn(CO33)22 and CaCO33 in manganese carbonate ore carbonate ore
withHH2SO
with 2 SO . In addition, a small amount of Pyrite, illite, albite, and dolomite are also
4.4In addition, a small amount of Pyrite, illite, albite, and dolomite are also found
found
in in the manganese
the manganese slag, is
slag, which which is consistent
consistent with
with the the existing
existing literature
literature [20–22].[20–22].
2.1.2. XRF Spectrometry Analysis
2.1.2. XRF Spectrometry Analysis
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) can more accurately analyze the elements
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) can more accurately analyze the elements
qualitatively and quantitatively, and can accurately identify multiple elements. The XRF
qualitatively and quantitatively, and can accurately identify multiple elements. The XRF
test instrument used in this study is the ARL Perform X-ray fluorescence spectrometer
test instrument
produced used Fisher
by Thermo in thisScientific
study is inthe
theARL Perform
United States.X-ray fluorescence
XRF was spectrometer
used to test the element
produced by Thermo Fisher Scientific in the United States. XRF was used to
distribution in the manganese slag and calculate the oxide content. The test resultstest the ele-
are
ment
shown distribution
in Tables 2in the3,manganese
and respectively.slag and calculate the oxide content. The test results
are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Table 2. Element content of manganese slag.
Table 2. Element content of manganese slag.
Element O Si S Al Ca Fe Mn Mg K Total
Element O Si S Al Ca Fe Mn Mg K Total
Percentage (%) 47.77 16.38 10.36 6.62 5.17 3.83 3.56 2.38 1.99 98.06
Percentage (%) 47.77 16.38 10.36 6.62 5.17 3.83 3.56 2.38 1.99 98.06

Table
Table 3.
3. Chemical
Chemical composition
composition of
of manganese
manganese slag.
slag.
Chemical Composition SiO2 SiO3 CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO K2O Total
Chemical
Percentage (%) SiO2 35.04
SiO25.88
3 CaO
7.23 Al212.50
O3 Fe25.48
O3 MnO
4.59 MgO
3.94 K2.93
2O Total
97.59
Composition
Percentage (%) 35.04 25.88 7.23 12.50 5.48 4.59 3.94 2.93 97.59
Table 2 shows the content of elements in manganese slag. It can be seen that the main
elements (content > 1%) in manganese slag include O, Si, S, A1, Ca, Fe, Mn, Mg, K, etc.,
whichTable 2 shows
account the content
for 98.06% of all of elementsAmong
elements. in manganese
them, theslag. It canofbeO,seen
content Si isthat
the the main
highest,
elements (content
accounting for more> than
1%) in
60% manganese slag include
of all elements. Table 3O, Si, S,the
shows A1,chemical
Ca, Fe, Mn, Mg, K, etc.,
composition of
which account for 98.06% of all elements. Among them, the content of O,
manganese slag. The oxides in manganese slag include SiO2, SO3, CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, Si is the highest,
accounting
MgO, and Kfor more than 60% of all elements. Table 3 shows the chemical composition
2O, accounting for 97.59% of all oxides. The content of SiO2 and SO3 is the
of manganese slag.
highest, accounting for Theabout
oxides 60%in manganese slag include
of the total content, which SiOis2 ,in
SO 3 , CaO, with
contrast Al2 Othe
3 , Fe2 O3 ,
XRD
MnO, MgO, and
analysis, because theK O, accounting for 97.59% of all oxides.
2 main chemical composition of quartz is SiO2. The content of SiO 2 and SO3
is the highest, accounting for about 60% of the total content, which is in contrast with the
XRD analysis, because the main chemical composition of quartz is SiO2 .
The chemical composition of manganese slag is similar to that of ordinary silicate,
mainly clay minerals. The crystal structure and material composition of manganese slag
determines its natural form. The fresh manganese slag generally has low water content
and presents fine particles; after being stored for a period of time, the manganese slag
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

The chemical composition of manganese slag is similar to that of ordinary silicate,

Materials 2021, 14, 5530 The chemical composition of manganese slag is similar to that of ordinary silicate, 4 ofslag
17
mainly clay minerals. The crystal structure and material composition of manganese
mainly clay minerals. The crystal structure and material composition of manganese slag
determines its natural form. The fresh manganese slag generally has low water content
determines its natural form. The fresh manganese slag generally has low water content
and presents fine particles; after being stored for a period of time, the manganese slag is
and presents fine particles; after being stored for a period of time, the manganese slag is
eroded by rain and presents the shape of flowable slurry, which is similar to that of gen-
iseroded
erodedbyby rain
rain and
and presents
presents thethe shape
shape of flowable
of flowable slurry,
slurry, which
which is similar
is similar to that
to that of
of gen-
eral cohesive soil, which is one of the feasible conditions for using manganese slag as sub-
general cohesive soil, which is one of the feasible conditions for using manganese slag
eral cohesive soil, which is one of the feasible conditions for using manganese slag as sub- as
grade filler.
subgrade filler.
grade filler.
2.1.3.SEM
2.1.3. SEM ScanningElectron Electron MicroscopeAnalysis Analysis
2.1.3. SEMScanning
Scanning ElectronMicroscope
Microscope Analysis
Inorder
In ordertotoclarify
clarifythe
themicroscopic
microscopicmorphology
morphologyofofnatural naturalmanganese
manganeseslag, slag,observe
observe
In order to clarify the microscopic morphology of natural manganese slag, observe
its pore state, aggregate structure characteristics, and other information,
its pore state, aggregate structure characteristics, and other information, scanning electron scanning electron
its pore state, aggregate structure characteristics, and other information, scanning electron
microscopy tests
microscopy tests were
were carried
carriedout outononuncured
uncured manganese
manganese slag samples.
slag samples. TheThe scanning
scanningelec-
microscopy tests were carried out on uncured manganese slag samples. The scanning elec-
tron microscope
electron microscope images
images ofof
manganese
manganeseslag slagunder
underthe thescale
scalelength
length ofof 2 μmµm andand 11 µm μmare are
tron microscope images of manganese slag under the scale length of 2 μm and 1 μm are
shownin
shown inFigures
Figures22and and3.3.ItItcan
canbebeseen
seenthat
thatunder
underthe the22µmμmscale
scalelength,
length,the themicroscopic
microscopic
shown in Figures 2 and 3. It can be seen that under the 2 μm scale length, the microscopic
morphology of
morphology ofthethemanganese
manganeseslag slagpresents
presentsmassive
massiveand andstrip-shaped
strip-shapedcrystalcrystalparticles
particles
morphology of the manganese slag presents massive and strip-shaped crystal particles
coveredby
covered byaalarge
largenumber
numberofofspherical
sphericalflakeflakeparticles.
particles.The Thescanning
scanningelectron
electronmicroscope
microscope
covered by a large number of spherical flake particles. The scanning electron microscope
imageunder
image underthe the11µm μmruler
rulerlength
lengthshows
showsthis thisfeature.
feature.Combined
Combinedwith withthe theanalysis
analysisofofthe the
image under the 1 μm ruler length shows this feature. Combined with the analysis of the
XRDand
XRD andXRFXRFresults
resultsofofthethemanganese
manganeseslag, slag,ititisisjudged
judgedthat thatthe
themassive
massiveand andband-like
band-like
XRD and XRF results of the manganese slag, it is judged that the massive and band-like
crystalparticles
crystal particlesininthe themanganese
manganeseslag slagshould
should bebe hemihydrate
hemihydrate gypsum
gypsum (CaSO
(CaSO 4-(H
4 -(H 20)
2 O) ),
0.5),
0.5
crystal particles and in the manganese slag should be tohemihydrate gypsum (CaSO4-(H 20)0.5),
and many
and many flake and sphericalspherical particles
particles attached
attached to its its
surface may
surface maybe silicon
be silicondioxide crys-
dioxide
and many flake
crystals Inand sphericaltheparticles attached of to its surface may be silicon dioxide crys-
tals (SiO(SiO 2 ).addition,
2). In addition,
the size size distribution
distribution manganese
of manganese slag slag particles
particles is relatively
is relatively une-
tals (SiO
uneven, 2). In addition, the size distribution of manganese slag particles is relatively une-
there
ven, there areare a lot
a lot ofof poresbetween
pores betweenthe theparticles,
particles,and and nono obvious cementation
cementationisisfound found
ven, there are
between a lot ofThese
poresstructural
between characteristics
the particles, and no obvious cementationbetween is found
betweenthe theparticles.
particles. These structural characteristics indicate that the
indicate thatconnection
the connection be-
between the
manganese slagparticles.
particles These
is notstructural
tight, characteristics indicate that
usedisthe connection be-
tween manganese slag particles is notso when
tight, so manganese
when manganese slag isslag as slope
used material,
as slope ma-
tween manganese
solidification treatmentslag particles is
should should not tight,
be considered so when
first. first. manganese slag is used as slope ma-
terial, solidification treatment be considered
terial, solidification treatment should be considered first.

Figure2.2.SEM
Figure SEMimage
imageunder
under22µm
μmscale.
scale.
Figure 2. SEM image under 2 μm scale.

Figure 3. SEM image under 1 μm scale.

Figure3.3.SEM
Figure SEMimage
imageunder
under11µm
μmscale.
scale.
2.1.4. Particle Analysis Test
2.1.4.
2.1.4.Particle
ParticleAnalysis
AnalysisTestTest
By testing the percentage of different particle sizes in the total mass of manganese
By
Bytesting
testingthethepercentage
percentage of of
different particle
different sizes
particle in the
sizes in total massmass
the total of manganese slag,
of manganese
slag, the particle size distribution curve of manganese slag can be drawn, and the charac-
the particle
slag, size distribution
the particle curve of
size distribution manganese
curve slag canslag
of manganese be drawn, and the and
can be drawn, characteristics
the charac-
teristics of particle size distribution can be determined. In this study, Malvern Mastersizer
ofteristics
particleofsize distribution
particle can be determined.
size distribution In this study,
can be determined. Malvern
In this study,Mastersizer 2000 laser
Malvern Mastersizer
2000 laser
particle size
particle
analyzer
size
was
analyzer
used to
was usedthe
analyze
to analyze
particle
the
size
particle size distribution
distribution of manganese
of man-
slag.
2000 laser particle size analyzer was used to analyze the particle size distribution of man-
ganese
Figure 4 slag.
shows Figure
the 4 shows
particle sizethe particle
distribution size
curvedistribution
of manganese curve of
slag, manganese
the results of slag, the
particle
ganese slag. Figure 4 shows the particle size distribution curve of manganese slag, the
size distribution in manganese slag are shown in Table 4. The content of clay in manganese
slag is small, accounting for only 7.37% of the total particle size. The proportion of silt and
sand is as high as 92.63%, in which silt accounts for 60.20% of the total particle size.
 total particle size.

Table 4. Analysis of particle composition of manganese slag.

Sample Name Percentage of Each Particle Size (mm) in Total Mass (%)
Materials 2021, 14, 5530 5 of 17
>0.02 (Sand) 0.02 ~ 0.002 (Powder) <0.002 (Cosmid)
Manganese Slag
32.43 60.20 7.37

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Particle
Particle size
size distribution
distribution curve
curve of
of manganese
manganese slag.
slag.

TableAccording
4. Analysis to
of the comprehensive
particle test
composition of results, the
manganese slag.particle size distribution of manga-
nese slag is similar to that of sandy silt. Its particles are fine and uniform, mainly sand and
Sample
powder Name with little clay
particles, Percentage
content,of making
Each Particle
sandSizeand(mm) in Total
powder Mass (%)
particles relatively
large. The voids between the>0.02particles
(Sand)are not filled with (Powder)
0.02~0.002 fine clay particles,
<0.002forming
(Cosmid)a so-
Manganese Slag
called “building block” type framework,
32.43 which makes it difficult to compact.
60.20 Therefore,
7.37
from the perspective of particle size distribution, manganese slag is not suitable for direct
use asAccording
roadbed filler.
to the comprehensive test results, the particle size distribution of man-
ganese slag is similar to that of sandy silt. Its particles are fine and uniform, mainly sand
2.2.
andEngineering Characteristics
powder particles, Before
with little claySolidification
content, making sand and powder particles relatively
2.2.1.
large.Compaction Test
The voids between the particles are not filled with fine clay particles, forming a
so-called “building block”
The compaction type framework,
characteristics which
of subgrade makes
fillers canit be
difficult to compact.
determined throughTherefore,
indoor
compaction tests. The maximum dry density and optimal moisture content are of direct
from the perspective of particle size distribution, manganese slag is not suitable for great
use as roadbed
significance for filler.
guiding construction, which can be determined by controlling different
compaction powers to hammer filler samples with different moisture contents. A stand-
2.2. Engineering Characteristics before Solidification
ard light compaction test was carried out on the manganese slag sample, the dry density
2.2.1. Compaction
corresponding Test
to different moisture contents after compaction was calculated by the fol-
lowingTheformula,
compactionand characteristics
the relationship of subgrade
between fillers
moisturecan be determined
content and drythrough indoor
density was
compaction tests. The maximum
drawn. The curve is the compaction curve. dry density and optimal moisture content are of great
significance for guiding construction, which𝜌can be determined by controlling different
compaction powers to hammer filler𝜌samples = with different moisture contents. A standard (2)
1 + 0.01𝜔
light compaction test was carried out on the manganese slag sample, the dry density
where: 𝜌 , dry density
corresponding to differentof manganese
moisture slag
3); 𝜌, the wet density of manganese slag
(g/cmafter
contents compaction was calculated by the
(g/cm 3); ω, Water content (%).
following formula, and the relationship between moisture content and dry density was
TheThe
drawn. maximum
curve isdry the density
compactionreflects the densest state that the soil can reach within a
curve.
certain range of water content under the action of a certain compaction work. According
to the test record data in Table 5, the compaction ρ curve is drawn as shown in Figure 5. The
ρd = (2)
1 + 0.01ω
compaction curve of manganese slag is similar to that of soil. The dry density first in-
creases and then decreases with the gradual increase in water content. The optimal water
where: ρd , dry density of manganese slag (g/cm3 ); ρ, the wet density of manganese slag
content
(g/cm3 );isω, 20.1%,
Waterand the corresponding
content (%). maximum dry density is 1.71 g/cm3. Compared
with The
the natural
maximum moisture content
dry density of 32.7%,
reflects the optimal
the densest statemoisture content
that the soil of manganese
can reach within a
certain range of water content under the action of a certain compaction work. According to
the test record data in Table 5, the compaction curve is drawn as shown in Figure 5. The
compaction curve of manganese slag is similar to that of soil. The dry density first increases
and then decreases with the gradual increase in water content. The optimal water content
is 20.1%, and the corresponding maximum dry density is 1.71 g/cm3 . Compared with
the natural moisture content of 32.7%, the optimal moisture content of manganese slag is
obviously lower than the optimal moisture content. Therefore, when using manganese
slag as subgrade filler, how to reduce its moisture content to the optimal moisture content
should be considered to achieve the best compaction effect.
 Materials 2021, 14, 5530 6 of 17

Table 5. Calculation results of CBR value.

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 1
Sample Number Penetration L/mm Unit Pressure P/kPa CBR Value/% Water Absorption/g Expansion Rate/%

sample 1 2.5 110 1.6

5.0 161 1.5 238 6.46
2.5 132 1.9
sample 2
5.0 slag is obviously lower
198 than the optimal
1.9 moisture content.
224 Therefore, when
6.37 using manga
2.5 161
nese slag as subgrade 2.3
filler, how to reduce its moisture
sample 3
5.0 227 2.2 203 content to the6.13
optimal moisture
content should be considered to achieve the best compaction effect.

1.72

1.70

1.68

1.66
Dry density (g/cm3)

1.64

1.62

1.60

1.58

1.56

1.54

1.52

1.50
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Moisture content (%)

Figure5.5.Compaction
Figure Compaction test
test curve.
curve.

2.2.2. CBR Test

2.2.2. CBR Test
CBR can be used to evaluate the load-bearing properties of materials. The CBR value
CBR can be used to evaluate the load-bearing properties of materials. The CBR value
refers to the ratio of the unit pressure to the standard load strength (7 Mpa or 10.5 Mpa)
refersthe
when to penetrator
the ratio ofpenetrates
the unit pressure
the sampleto2.5
themmstandard
or 5 mmload
when strength (7 Mpa
the standard or 10.5 Mpa
crushed
stone is pressed into the same penetration amount, expressed as a percentage. At present, crushed
when the penetrator penetrates the sample 2.5 mm or 5 mm when the standard
stone
the CBRis value
pressedwasinto
usedthe
as same penetration
an important amount,
basis for expressed
the selection as a percentage.
of roadbed At present
fillers. The unit
pressure
the CBRcan be calculated
value was usedbased
as an on the dynamometer
important basis forreading, and the
the selection ofrelationship curveThe uni
roadbed fillers.
between
pressureunit
canpressure and penetration
be calculated can dynamometer
based on the be drawn, and the unit pressure
reading, and thevalue when curve
relationship
penetration is 2.5 mm and 5 mm can be found on the curve, and the
between unit pressure and penetration can be drawn, and the unit pressure valueCBR value can be when
calculated according to the following formula:
penetration is 2.5 mm and 5 mm can be found on the curve, and the CBR value can be
calculated according to the following formula:
P
CBR2.5 = × 100 (3)
7000𝑃
(3
𝐶𝐵𝑅 . = × 100
P7000
CBR5.0 = × 100 (4)
10500
𝑃 (4
where: P, unit pressure, CBR2.5 is the𝐶𝐵𝑅 = of manganese
CBR .value × 100 slag when the penetration is
10500
2.5 mm; CBR5.0 , the CBR value of manganese slag when the penetration is 5 mm.
where:CBRP,tests
unitwere carried
pressure, out2.5on
CBR three
is the groups
CBR valueof of
manganese
manganese slagslag
samples,
when and the
the penetration
relationship curve between unit pressure and penetration is shown in Figure
is 2.5 mm; CBR5.0, the CBR value of manganese slag when the penetration is 5 mm. 6. According
to the curve, the unit pressure when the penetration is 2.5 mm and 5 mm can be found,
CBR tests were carried out on three groups of manganese slag samples, and the rela
the CBR value can be calculated. Table 5 shows that the CBR value of manganese slag is
tionship curve between unit pressure and penetration is shown in Figure 6. According to
between 1.5 and 2.2, which does not meet the construction strength standard of highway
the curve,therefore,
subgrade; the unit manganese
pressure when the penetration
slag cannot is 2.5asmm
be directly used and 5filler.
subgrade mm can be found, the
CBR value can be calculated. Table 5 shows that the CBR value of manganese slag is be
tween 1.5 and 2.2, which does not meet the construction strength standard of highway
subgrade; therefore, manganese slag cannot be directly used as subgrade filler.
Materials 2021,
Materials 14, 14,
2021, x FOR
5530 PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

Penetration L(mm)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0

sample 1
50 sample 2
sample 3

Unit pressure P(kPa)

100
110
150 132
161
161
200
198

250 227

300

The
Figure6. 6.
Figure relationship
The curve curve
relationship between unit pressure
between unitand penetration.
pressure and penetration.
In addition, the expansion amount and expansion rate of compacted manganese
Table 5. Calculation results of CBR value.
slag samples were also tested. It was found that the manganese slag had a certain water
absorption after compaction, the water absorption amount was between 203 and 238 g, and
Sample Penetration Unit Pressure Expans
the expansion rate was between CBR6.13Value/%
and 6.46. Therefore,
Waterit was judged that manganese
Absorption/g
Number L/mm slag had micro P/kPa
expansion. Rate/%
2.5 110 1.6
sample 1 2.3. Engineering Characteristics after Solidification 238 6.46
5.0 161 1.5
The CBR value of manganese slag is between 1.5 and 2.2, which does not meet the
2.5 132 standard of highway
construction strength 1.9 subgrade, and the gap between manganese slag
sample 2 224 6.37
5.0 particles is not198 1.9 which makes it difficult to compact. Therefore,
filled with fine clay particles,
2.5 from the point161of strength and particle2.3size distribution, manganese slag is not suitable to
sample 3 203
be used as subgrade filler directly, and it needs to be treated by solidification. In this study, 6.13
5.0 227 2.2
quicklime was used to solidify the manganese slag. For the solidified manganese slag, a
compaction test and a CBR test were carried out to study its engineering characteristics.
In addition, the expansion amount and expansion rate of compacted mangan
2.3.1. Compaction Test
samples were also tested. It was found that the manganese slag had a certain w
Mix 10%, 11%, and 12% lime into manganese slag, respectively to compact the mixture
sorption after compaction, the water absorption amount was between 203 and 23
of lime and manganese slag. The compaction curve of manganese slag with different lime
the expansion
content is shown inrate was7.between
Figure 6.13 and
With the gradual 6.46.inTherefore,
increase it the
lime content, wascompaction
judged that ma
slag had
curve micro
gradually expansion.
shifts to the upper right, indicating that the incorporation of lime increases
the optimal moisture content of manganese slag and reduces the maximum dry density.
The
2.3.optimum moisture
Engineering content of uncured
Characteristics after manganese slag is 20.1%, and the corresponding
Solidification
maximum dry density is 1.71 g/cm3 . When 10% lime is added, the optimum moisture
content The CBR and
is 21.8%, valuethe of manganese
maximum slag isis1.613
dry density between
g/cm31.5 and
. With the2.2, which
increase does not m
in lime
construction
content to 11% and strength
12%, thestandard of highway
optimal moisture content subgrade,
and maximum and drythe gap change
density between ma
little,
slag indicating
particles that when
is not the lime
filled withcontent
fine reaches 10%, the continuous
clay particles, which makes increaseit in lime
difficult to c
content has limited improvement on the compaction effect of manganese slag.
Therefore, from the point of strength and particle size distribution, manganese sl
Based on the above test results, it can be found that the incorporation of lime improves
suitable
the to be characteristics
compaction used as subgrade filler directly,
of manganese slag. Whenandtheit needs to content
moisture be treated by solidi
of the
In this study,
uncured manganese quicklime wasthan
slag is higher used theto solidify
optimal the manganese
moisture content of theslag. For filler
subgrade the solidifi
in the project, it is generally necessary to carry out drying treatment
ganese slag, a compaction test and a CBR test were carried out to study its engto control the moisture
content near the optimal moisture content. The addition of lime improves the optimal
characteristics.
moisture content of the manganese slag, reduces the gap between the moisture content of
the uncured manganese slag and the optimal moisture content, reduces the drying time,
2.3.1. Compaction
shortens the construction Testperiod, and saves the construction cost.
Mix 10%, 11%, and 12% lime into manganese slag, respectively to compact
ture of lime and manganese slag. The compaction curve of manganese slag with d
lime content is shown in Figure 7. With the gradual increase in lime content, the
tion curve gradually shifts to the upper right, indicating that the incorporation
increases the optimal moisture content of manganese slag and reduces the maxim
density. The optimum moisture content of uncured manganese slag is 20.1%, and
responding maximum dry density is 1.71 g/cm3. When 10% lime is added, the o
 filler in the project, it is generally necessary to carry out drying treatment
moisture content near the optimal moisture content. The addition of lime
optimal moisture content of the manganese slag, reduces the gap between
Materials 2021, 14, 5530 content of the uncured manganese slag and the optimal moisture 8 of 17 conten

drying time, shortens the construction period, and saves the construction c

1.64

mixed with 10% lime

1.63
mixed with 11% lime
mixed with 12% lime
1.62

Dry density (g/cm3)

1.61

1.60

1.59

1.58

1.57

1.56
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Moisture content (%)

Figure
Figure 7. Compaction curve of
7. Compaction lime-solidified
curve manganese slag.
of lime-solidified manganese slag.
2.3.2. CBR Test
2.3.2. CBRofTest
A total 10%, 11% and 12% lime were added into the manganese slag, and the
CBR test was carried out after the lime manganese slag mixture was compacted. The
A total
relationship of 10%,
between 11% and amount
the penetration 12% lime were
and the unitadded
pressureinto
underthe manganese
different lime slag
test was
content carried
is drawn out after
as shown the8. lime
in Figure manganese
The results slag with
were compared mixture
the CBR was compacted
curves of
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
uncured manganese slag. It can be seen from Figure 8 that with
ship between the penetration amount and the unit pressure under differenthe addition of lime, the
required unit pressure increases obviously under the same penetration, which indicates that
is drawn
lime asthe
solidifies shown
bearingin Figure
capacity of 8. The results
manganese were compared
slag. According with the
to the relationship CBR cur
curve
manganese
between slag.and
penetration It can
unit be seen the
pressure, from
CBRFigure
value of8manganese
that with the
slag addition
with different of lime
10%
lime lime produced
content is a (Table
calculated significant
6). solidification effect on the CBR value of mangane
unit pressure increases obviously under the same penetration, which indi
and its CBR value fully reached the standard of subgrade design.
solidifies the bearing capacity
Penetration of manganese slag. According to the relation
L(mm)
tween 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 penetration and unit pressure, the CBR value of manganese slag with
content
1,000 is calculated (Table 6).
2,000

Table
3,000 6. CBR value of manganese slag with different lime content.
Unit pressure P(kPa)

4,000
5,000
Material
Penetration/mm Unit Pressure/kPa CBR
6,000 2.5 3850
Mixed with 10% lime
7,000 5.0 7140
2.5 4095
8,000
Mixed withMixed
11% with
lime10% lime
9,000 Mixed with 11% lime 5.0 7717.5
Mixed with 12% lime 2.5 3850
10,000
Mixed withNatural
12% lime
manganese slag
11,000 5.0 6720
Natural manganese
12,000 2.5 161
slag 5.0 227
Figure 8. The relationship curve between unit pressure and penetration of lime-solidified man-
Figure 8. The relationship curve between unit pressure and penetration of lime-solidified
ganese slag.
nese slag.
The CBR test results (Figure 8) showed that the CBR value of uncur
slag According
is relatively low.compaction
to the When thecurve
penetration is 2.5 mm,manganese
of lime-solidified CBR2.5 = 2.3, and
slag whe
in Figu
tion is 5.0water
optimum mm, content
CBR5.0 =corresponding
2.2, which does notlime
to the meet the minimum
content CBRand
of 10%, 11%, standar
12% i
When and
23.5%, 10%21.7%,
lime isrespectively.
mixed, the value of CBR
According increases
to2.5the to 55,ofwith
CBR values an increas
manganese sla
different
the valuelime content
of CBR in Table 7,
5.0 increased to when
68, anthe lime content
increase is 10%,With
of 30 times. 11% the
andincrea
12%, t
values
tent toare
11%68%,
and73.5%
12%,and the 64%,
CBR respectively, which meet
value of manganese slagthe subgrade
does design ob
not increase sta
Therefore, 10% quicklime content is selected as the best mix proportion
the lime content is 12%, the CBR value even decreases slightly. Therefore, t of solidifie
ganese slag.
Materials 2021, 14, 5530 9 of 17

The CBR test results (Figure 8) showed that the CBR value of uncured manganese slag
is relatively low. When the penetration is 2.5 mm, CBR2.5 = 2.3, and when the penetration is
5.0 mm, CBR5.0 = 2.2, which does not meet the minimum CBR standard of subgrade. When
10% lime is mixed, the value of CBR2.5 increases to 55, with an increase of 27.5 times; the
value of CBR5.0 increased to 68, an increase of 30 times. With the increase in lime content
to 11% and 12%, the CBR value of manganese slag does not increase obviously. When the
lime content is 12%, the CBR value even decreases slightly. Therefore, the addition of 10%
lime produced a significant solidification effect on the CBR value of manganese slag, and
its CBR value fully reached the standard of subgrade design.

Table 6. CBR value of manganese slag with different lime content.

Material Penetration/mm Unit Pressure/kPa CBR Value/%

2.5 3850 55
Mixed with 10% lime
5.0 7140 68
2.5 4095 58.5
Mixed with 11% lime
5.0 7717.5 73.5
2.5 3850 55
Mixed with 12% lime
5.0 6720 64
2.5 161 2.3
Natural manganese slag
5.0 227 2.2

According to the compaction curve of lime-solidified manganese slag in Figure 7,

the optimum water content corresponding to the lime content of 10%, 11%, and 12% is
21.8%, 23.5%, and 21.7%, respectively. According to the CBR values of manganese slag
under different lime content in Table 7, when the lime content is 10%, 11% and 12%,
the CBR values are 68%, 73.5% and 64%, respectively, which meet the subgrade design
standards. Therefore, 10% quicklime content is selected as the best mix proportion of
solidified manganese slag.

Table 7. Parameters of seepage calculation.

Saturated Volumetric Moisture

Partition Volume-Weight (kN/m3 ) Permeability Coefficient (m/s)
Content (m3 /m3 )
Manganese slag 18.8 1.38 × 10−7 0.417
clay layer 21.6 5.21 × 10−8 0.15

3. Numerical Simulation
3.1. Methods and Theory
3.1.1. Theory of Strength and Slope Stability
Fredlund’s double stress variable formula is used as the unsaturated shear strength
theory:
s = c0 + σn tanϕ0 + (u a − uw )tanϕb (5)
where c0 , ϕ0 are effective strength parameters; σn is net normal stress, the difference between
normal normal stress and pore gas pressure; u a is the pore gas pressure; uw is the pore water
pressure; and ϕb is angle indicating the rate of increase in shear strength with respect to a
change in matric suction. The stability analysis of the slope adopts the Morgenstern–Price
method in the limit equilibrium method. The Morgenstern–Price method can meet the
balance of forces and moments in all directions, and can solve the sliding arc surface with
arbitrary shape. The assumption of this method is that there is no tension between the soil
strips, the ratio of the tangential force at the bottom of the soil strip to the horizontal thrust
is the product of the undetermined parameter λ and the inter-strip force function f(x). The
safety factor of slope stability is obtained by solving the differential equations of force and
moment balance.
Materials 2021, 14, 5530 10 of 17

3.1.2. Monte Carlo Theory

The single method of using the safety factor to represent the safety state of the slope
cannot reflect the risk state of the slope. Due to the spatial variability of soil, the random-
ness of soil parameter distribution also needs to be considered in the actual finite element
calculation. The Monte Carlo method [23] is a numerical method based on a large number
of random event statistics to obtain event probability characteristics such as expectation
or probability distribution, which are connected with the solution of mathematical anal-
ysis, and use experimental methods to solve approximate solutions to problems such as
mathematics, physics and engineering technology by experimental method.
In this study, random sampling was performed on the bulk density, cohesive force,
and internal friction angle of the slope soil parameters. The number of times Fn < 1 is
counted as M, which is recorded as failure times. The total sampling times is counted as N,
and the failure probability can be expressed as:

M
Pf = P( Pn ≤ 1) = (6)
N
the mean value can be expressed as:

N
1
µF =
N ∑ Fj (7)
j =1

the standard deviation can be expressed as:

" #1
N 2
1
σF =
N−1 ∑ ( Fj − µ f ) 2
(8)
j =1

the critical safety factor of landslide is defined as µ0 , and the reliability index can be
defined as:
µ − µ0
β= F (9)
σF
the failure probability can be defined as:

Pf = 1 − Φ( β) (10)

3.2. Finite Element Simulation of Slope Stability

3.2.1. Finite Element Model
In this study, the finite element simulation of the stability of a highway slope was
carried out by using the GeoStudio software. Figure 9 shows the finite element model of
the slope, the slope height of 10m and the slope ratio of 1:1.5. It is assumed that the failure
of the manganese slag highway slope obeys the Mohr Coulomb criterion. The model mesh
is divided into 3113 nodes and 3008 elements.
 3.2.1. Finite Element Model
In this study, the finite element simulation of the stability of a highway slope was
carried out by using the GeoStudio software. Figure 9 shows the finite element model of
the slope, the slope height of 10m and the slope ratio of 1:1.5. It is assumed that the failure
Materials 2021, 14, 5530
of the manganese slag highway slope obeys the Mohr Coulomb criterion. The11 of 17
model mesh
is divided into 3113 nodes and 3008 elements.

(a) (b)

(c)
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11

Figure 9. Finite element model and field material.

3.2.2. 9.
Figure Calculation
Finite elementParameters and
model and field Working
material. Conditions
3.2.2. The cohesion
Calculation and friction
Parameters angle ofConditions
and Working manganese slag is determined by the triaxial s
test, The
it should
cohesion beandnoted that
friction manganese
angle slagslag
of manganese doped with 10%bylime
is determined is used
the triaxial for the tria
shear
test it(Figure
test, should be 10). Salazar
noted et al. presented
that manganese a new
slag doped withmethod
10% lime to measure
is used for thethe volume
triaxial test and v
(Figure
metric 10). Salazar
strains et al.specimens
of soil presented a during
new method to measure
the triaxial testthe volume
[24]. and volumetric
Mehdizadeh et al. develo
strains
a modified of soiltriaxial
specimens during the
apparatus triaxial test
connected to a[24].
waterMehdizadeh et al. developed
supply system a
and collection tan
modified triaxial apparatus connected to a water supply system and collection tank to
investigate the post-erosion behavior of soil under different loading patterns in undra
investigate the post-erosion behavior of soil under different loading patterns in undrained
conditions[25].
conditions [25].
In In
thisthis study,
study, the of
the data data of numerical
numerical simulationsimulation are from experiments
are from experiments [26].
Themanganese
The manganese slagslag in this
in this statestate was solidified
was solidified in advance.in advance. The calculation
The calculation parameters parame
(Tables7 7and
(Tables and 8) the
8) of of the
finitefinite element
element modelmodel were measured
were measured through the through the field test.
field test.

300

250 c=57.11kPa
φ=19.82°
Shear stress (kPa)

200

150

100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Normal stress (kPa)

Figure 10.Envelope
Figure10. Envelopeof consolidated undrained
of consolidated shear strength.
undrained shear strength.

Table 8. Parameters
Table 8. Parameters of stability
of stability calculation.
calculation.
Partition Poisson’s Ratio Internal Friction Angle (◦ ) Cohesion (kPa) Elastic Modulus (MPa)
Internal
Manganese slag 0.25 Poisson’s
19.82 57.11 174.6 Elastic
clay layer 0.35
Partition 7.4 Ratio
Friction
45
Angle Cohesion (kPa)
35 Modulus (M
(°)
Manganese slag
Considering 0.25
the influence 19.82 the rainfall intensity
of continuous rainfall, 57.11 in the finite 174.6
clay
element layeris respectively0.35
model taken as 0 mm/d, 107.4mm/d, 30 mm/d, and45 50 mm/d. The 35
rainfall duration in the model was set to 10 days, and the total calculation time was set
to 30 days. The number
Considering the of calculation
influence ofsteps was set torainfall,
continuous 30 steps.the
Considering the spatialin the f
rainfall intensity
variation in the parameters of the manganese slag slope material, it was assumed that the
element model is respectively taken as 0 mm/d, 10 mm/d, 30 mm/d, and 50 mm/d.
material parameter distribution obeys the normal distribution, the standard deviation of
rainfall duration in the model was set to 10 days, and the total calculation time was s
30 days. The number of calculation steps was set to 30 steps. Considering the spatial
iation in the parameters of the manganese slag slope material, it was assumed tha
material parameter distribution obeys the normal distribution, the standard deviatio
the parameters was set to 1, the number of Monte Carlo sampling was 2000. The no
 Materials 2021, 14, 5530 12 of 17

the parameters was set to 1, the number of Monte Carlo sampling was 2000. The normal
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
probability density functions of the physical and mechanical parameters (cohesion, volume-
weight, internal friction angle) of manganese slag and clay layer are shown in Figures 11
and 12.

0.45
cohesion
0.40

0.35
probability

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62
cohesion (kPa)

(a) cohesion

0.45
bulk density
0.40

0.35
probability

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

bulk density (kN·m-3)

(b) volume-weight

0.45
internal friction angle
0.40

0.35
probability

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
internal friction angle (°)

(c) internal friction angle.

Figure 11. Probability density function distribution of manganese slag parameters.
Figure 11. Probability density function distribution of manganese slag parameters.

0.45
cohesion
0.40

0.35
probability

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
 0.05

0.00
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
internal friction angle (°)

(c) internal friction angle.

Materials 2021, 14, 5530 13 of 17

Figure 11. Probability density function distribution of manganese slag parameters.

0.45
cohesion
0.40

0.35

probability
0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 13
cohesion (kPa)

(a) cohesion
0.45
bulk density
0.40

0.35
probability

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

bulk density (kN·m-3)

(b) volume-weight

0.45
internal friction angle
0.40

0.35
probability

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
internal friction angle (°)

(c) internal friction angle

Figure 12. Probability density function distribution of clay layer.

Figure 12. Probability density function distribution of clay layer.
3.2.3. Reliability and Failure Probability Analysis
3.2.3.
TheReliability
stability ofand
the Failure
manganese Probability
slag slopeAnalysis
was simulated by Monte Carlo random
sampling
The stability of the manganese slag and
for 2000 times, and the reliability index slopefailure
wasprobability
simulated of by
the manganese
Monte Carlo ran
slag slope under different rainfall intensities were calculated. In this study, the reliability
sampling for 2000 times, and the reliability index and failure probability of the manga
index and failure probability are taken as the main indexes to evaluate slope stability. At
slag
the slope
same under
time, different
the average rainfall
safety intensities
factor, reliability were
index, calculated.
minimum safetyIn thismaximum
factor, study, the reliab
index and failure probability are taken as the main indexes
safety factor, and other index parameters under various working conditions are to evaluate slope
also stabilit
the same time, the average safety factor, reliability index, minimum safety factor, m
calculated.
mum The probability
safety factor,and
and probability
other indexdensity distribution
parameters of the
under slope safety
various workingfactorconditions
under are
different rainfall
calculated. intensities are shown in Figures 13 and 14, respectively. The statistics of
various indicators are shown in Table 9.
The probability and probability density distribution of the slope safety factor u
different rainfall intensities are shown in Figures 13 and 14, respectively. The statisti
various indicators are shown in Table 9.
18

16
0mm/d
14 10mm/d
30mm/d
12
ity (%)

40mm/d
10
 the same time, the average safety factor, reliability index, minimum safety factor, maxi
mum safety factor, and other index parameters under various working conditions are also
calculated.
The probability and probability density distribution of the slope safety factor unde
Materials 2021, 14, 5530 14 of 17
different rainfall intensities are shown in Figures 13 and 14, respectively. The statistics o
various indicators are shown in Table 9.
18

16
0mm/d
14 10mm/d
30mm/d
12

probability (%)
40mm/d
10

-2
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW safety factor 14 of 1

Figure 13.Probability
Figure13. Probabilitydistribution of slope
distribution safetysafety
of slope factor.factor.

110
100
0mm/d
90 10mm/d
80 30mm/d
probability (%)

70 40mm/d
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4

safety factor

Figure14.
Figure 14.Probability
Probability density
density distribution
distribution of slope
of slope safetysafety
factor. factor.

Table9.9.Statistics
Table Statisticsof of various
various indexes
indexes of manganese
of manganese slagunder
slag slope slope different
under different rainfall intensities.
rainfall intensities.

Rainfall
Rainfall Intensity
Intensity
0 mm/d 0 mm/d
10 mm/d 10 mm/d
30 mm/d 30 mm/d
50 mm/d 50 mm/d
IndexIndex
Average
Average safety safety
factor factor 2.905 2.9052.905 2.905
2.743 2.7432.733 2.733
Reliability index
Reliability index 21.778 21.477
21.778 15.787
21.477 15.762
15.787 15.762
Probability of failure (%) 0 0 0 0
Probability of failure (%) 2.573
Minimum safety factor
0 2.539 0 2.255 0 2.247 0
Minimum
Maximum safetysafety
factor factor 3.323 2.573
3.213 2.539
3.142 2.2553.130 2.247
Maximum safety factor 3.323 3.213 3.142 3.130
In combination with Figures 13 and 14, and Table 9, it can be seen that under all rainfall
In combination
intensity conditions, thewith failureFigures
probability13 and 14,
of the and Table
manganese 9, slope
slag it can bewhich
is 0, seen means
that under al
that the manganese slag slope is in a safe state at this time. When
rainfall intensity conditions, the failure probability of the manganese slag slope is the rainfall intensity is 0, which
0means
mm/d, the average safety factor is 2.905, the reliability index is 21.778,
that the manganese slag slope is in a safe state at this time. When the rainfall inten the minimum
safety factor
sity is 0 mm/d, is 2.573,
theand the maximum
average safetyisfactor
safety factor 2.905,is the
3.323.
reliability index is 21.778, the mini
When there is no rainfall, the failure probability of the manganese slag slope is less
mum safety factor is 2.573, and the maximum safety factor is 3.323.
than the working condition when rainfall occurs. With the increase in rainfall intensity,
When safety
the average there factor,
is no rainfall,
reliabilitythe failure
index, probability
minimum safetyof the manganese
factor, and maximum slag slope is les
safety
factor of manganese slag slope under various conditions generally tend to decrease, whichintensity
than the working condition when rainfall occurs. With the increase in rainfall
the average
indicates that safety
rainfallfactor,
reducesreliability
the safetyindex,
factor, minimum
and the greatersafetythefactor,
rainfalland maximum
intensity, the safety
factor of
greater themanganese
reduction inslag slope
rainfall onunder various
the safety conditions
factor, the lower generally
the reliabilitytend to decrease,
index. When which
the rainfallthat
indicates intensity is 50reduces
rainfall mm/d, the theaverage safety factor
safety factor, and the is 2.733,
greaterthe reliability
the rainfall index is
intensity, th
15.762,
greaterthetheminimum
reduction safety factor is
in rainfall on2.247, and thefactor,
the safety maximum safetythe
the lower factor is 3.130. index.
reliability The When
failure probability
the rainfall under
intensity is different
50 mm/d, rainfall intensities
the average is 0. factor
safety This is is
because
2.733, the
themanganese
reliability index i
slag slope safety factor is greater than one during the random sampling process, which is
15.762, the minimum safety factor is 2.247, and the maximum safety factor is 3.130. Th
failure probability under different rainfall intensities is 0. This is because the manganes
slag slope safety factor is greater than one during the random sampling process, which i
in a safe state. It also shows that although the manganese slag material is a solid wast
Materials 2021, 14, 5530 15 of 17

in a safe state. It also shows that although the manganese slag material is a solid waste
slag, its water resistance is good, its stability meets the design requirements, and it can
replace earth and stone materials to build highway roadbeds.

4. Conclusions
In this study, the physical and chemical characteristics of manganese slag were ana-
lyzed based on X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence spectrum, SEM scanning and a particle
analysis test. At the same time, the engineering characteristics of manganese slag before
solidification and after solidification with quicklime were analyzed through heavy a com-
paction test and a CBR test. Then, the stability of a highway slope was simulated by the
finite element method based on the Monte Carlo method. The conclusions are as follows:
(1) The XRD and XRF test results of manganese slag show that the crystallinity of quartz
and hemihydrate gypsum (CaSO4 -(H2 O)0.5 ) in manganese slag is high, the content of
silicon dioxide and silicon trioxide is high, and some metal oxides are also contained.
The crystal structure and material composition of manganese slag make it appear as
fine particles when the moisture content is low, and become slurry after being eroded
by rain;
(2) The SEM results of manganese slag show that the size distribution of manganese
slag particles is uneven, there are a lot of pores between the particles, and there is no
obvious cementation between the particles, so the solidification of manganese slag
should be considered in practical application;
(3) The engineering characteristic test of manganese slag shows that the particle size
distribution characteristics and critical moisture content of manganese slag are similar
to those of silt. The content of sand and powder particles is relatively high, and
the content of clay particles is relatively small. It belongs to high plasticity silt in
the plastic map. The optimum moisture content of manganese slag is 20.1%, the
corresponding maximum dry density is 1.71 g/cm3 , and its CBR value is about
1.5~2.3. It does not meet the subgrade design standard, and the manganese slag in an
uncured state cannot be directly filled as subgrade filler;
(4) Mixing with lime can improve the compaction characteristics of the manganese slag,
increase the optimal moisture content of the manganese slag, and reduce the gap
between the moisture content of the unsolidified manganese slag and the optimal
moisture content. Mixing with 10% lime can produce a significant solidification effect
on the CBR value of manganese slag, and its CBR value can fully reached the standard
for subgrade filling;
(5) The greater the rainfall intensity, the lower the safety factor of manganese slag slope,
and the lower the slope reliability index. In the actual project operation and manage-
ment process, the stability of the manganese slag slope under high-intensity rainfall
conditions should be paid attention to. Considering the spatial variability of man-
ganese slag and clay layer, the failure probability of manganese slag slope is 0 under
different rainfall intensities conditions.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.W.; Investigation, R.Z., L.J., Q.Y. and A.H.; Writing—
original draft, M.C.; Writing—review and editing, J.W. We confirm that the order of authors listed in
the manuscript has been approved by all named authors. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by: Science and Technology Project of Guizhou Transportation
Department “Research on the Harmless Treatment of Manganese Slag and Its Application in Key
Technologies of Highway Engineering” [Grant No. 2021-122-005].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to the project restrictions.
Materials 2021, 14, 5530 16 of 17

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declared no conflict of interest to this work. The authors declare
that they do not have any commercial or associative interest that represents a conflict of interest in
connection with the work submitted.

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