Name: RUEL O.

ANAS

RESEARCH METHODS FIRST EXAMINATION

Topic 1: Introduction to Research Methods

1. You’re watching the news when you hear the following: “Lately, there has been some
concern over using funds from the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) to
support basic research. It seems as if the DOST would fund applied research more and at
a higher level instead.” What is your conclusion about basic and applied research? In
other words, how would you define each type of research? What is the importance and
purpose of each type? What is the ability of applied research to exist without basic
research? (10 points)
-The department of Science and technology aims to support basic researcher or scientist
in different field of sciences especially Health and environmental sector which adhere
some of the basic and advancement in the quality and improving the life of individual in
the society. The funds that is being distributed among the researcher is not equal and not
enough due to miss handling or there are still people hold the exact fund to be distributed
to the researcher.
-Applied research primary aim is to formulate or refine a theory, also aims to provide
solution to a problem; focuses on factors or variables which can be varied to achieve a
desired goal
Types of Applied Research

There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research, research and
development, and action research.

• Evaluation Research

Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing information about a
research subject to arrive at objective research outcomes or reach informed decisions. This
type of applied research is mostly applied in business contexts, for example, an organisation
may adopt evaluation research to determine how to cut down overhead costs.

• Research and Development

Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused on developing new
products and services based on the needs of target markets. It focuses on gathering
information about marketing needs and finding ways to improve on an existing product or
create new products that satisfy the identified needs.

• Action Research
Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing practical solutions to
specific business problems by pointing the business in the right directions. Typically, action
research is a process of reflective inquiry that is limited to specific contexts and situational in
nature.

❖ Source
https://ca.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/basic-vs-applied-research

2. Explain how we can develop critical thinking skills in research and how it is valuable in
development and decision-making. (5 points).
- Critical thinking in research is important because it helps one recognize the prejudices,
false beliefs, and habits that may lead to flawed decisions. Effective decision making
involves the ability to identify consistently and select the best choice among multiple
options.
-Unfortunately, good action isn't possible without considering the right critical thinking
questions. Critical questioning allows you to clearly distinguish facts from biases,
stakeholders from observers, and solutions from potential solutions.

Topic 2: Formulating a Research Problem

3. Enumerate and explain the characteristics of a good research problem (5 points).

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved
upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly
literature, theory, or practice that points to the need for a meaningful understanding and
deliberate investigation. It may be expressed in declarative or interrogative form. In
some social science disciplines, however, the research problem is typically posed in the
form of one or more questions. A research problem, commonly called the heart of
research, is what researchers aim to answer later on as they go through the research
endeavor.

The following must be considered in constructing a research problem:

• A research problem is not just answerable by yes or no. It should imply that
explanations and justifications regarding the true situation or observation are
required.
• A research problem implies relationship between the variables of the study.
• The problem should be stated in clear, unambiguous manner.
• A researchable problem must imply interpretation and ana lysis of data.
Characteristics
1.A research problem must be relevant
-It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or
discipline
-The Problem must be timely and relevant . it must be of interest to the one investigating it. It
should yield answer that wil contribute to knowledge and development . in essence the problem
should be worth investigating and worth the time, money and effort to be spent on it.

2. A research problem must be feasible

-The feasibility of research questions focuses on objective aspects of the immediate empirical or
clinical environment (time, scope, resources, expertise, funding, etc.). Statistical power is also a
central focus of feasibility.
- The research problem can only be investigated if resources like time, money and personnel are
available. A research problem may be relevant , but if fund are not available and there are no
skilled researches or tools for data gathering. Then it would not be feasible to conduct it.
Researchers must therefore be sure of the availability of funds and human resources as well as
appropriate tools / devices need in the conduct of the Study.

3. A research problem must be clear

-Your research problem should be specific enough to set the direction of the study, raise research
question(s), and determine an appropriate research method and design. Vague research
problems may not be useful to specify the direction of the study or develop research questions.
-A clear statement that defines all objectives can help you conduct and develop effective and
meaningful research.
-The research problem must be clearly Stated so that what is being investigated is made clear.
Major variables of the study should be measures and should be specified in the problem
statement . the use of ambiguous terms must be avoided

4.A research problem must be ethical

-The conduct of the study should not pose any danger , embarrassment , hurt or any risk to the
research respondents or subjects or anyone , the information need to answer the research
questions can be collected without violating the right of the source of information’s. The
respondents privacy therefore be protected. They should be informs about the purpose of the
study and be given the right to consent or refuse to participate in the study.

4. Narrow down the given broad topic into a specific researchable problem: “What are the
best treatments for itching (pruritus) in hospitalize patients?” Note: there is not one
correct answer, explore your creativity in writing a specific researchable problem. Nice
tips on narrowing a huge topic: consider the angles of WHO, WHAT, WHERE, WHY, WHEN,
or HOW. (5 points)
a. What is the best treatment for pruritus?
b. What should be avoided in patients with pruritus?
c. Which agent is used to reduce severe itching?
d. Does drinking water help pruritus?
e. Why is pruritus severe at night?
f. Does pruritus ever go away?
g. How do you sleep when you cant stop itching?
h. Which injection is used for itching?

example:

Health benefits of whole grains in one’s diet: Are whole grain cereals preventative for
cardiovascular disease?

Does exercise improve mental health: Does an outdoor physical activity program improve
the mental health status of adults with clinical depression?

In the above topic:

• write a testable hypothesis. (4 points).

-Do whole grains reduce cardiovascular disease relative to your research problem,
• write a possible “problem situation.” (2 points).
- People who eat three or more servings of whole grain foods each day have up to
30 percent less risk of developing heart disease compared to people who rarely
eat whole grains. Plus, whole grains may help lower cholesterol levels and reduce
the risk of stroke. Those are huge benefits from foods that taste great too
• relative to your “possible problem situation,” what should be the “ideal
situation”? (2 points)
-Eating whole grain cereals can totally reduce cardiovascular diseases.
• from your above answers, what are the possible reasons for discrepancy between
the problem (what is) and ideal situation (what should be)? (2 points)
- providing or identifying the problem needs to be clear and need a lots of area to
be consider before coming up to a problem which can be discussed or research .
- Ideal situation is identifying the goals and scope of the project are. This section
should create a clear understanding of what the ideal environment will be once
the issue has been resolved.

Topic 3: Literature Review

5. In your own words, explain the importance of performing a literature review (5 points).
Importance of Literature Review
- Literature reviews provide a handle guild to a particular topic.
- It gives an overview of the field of inquiry on what has been already said about
the topic
- Shows how the prevailing ideas fit into your study
- It may reveal data sources of that you may not have known to have existed
- It can reveal methods of dealing with problematic situations
 6. Read through the paper posted in your VLE: “Xiao, Yu, and Maria Watson. "Guidance on
conducting a systematic literature review." Journal of Planning Education and Research
39.1 (2019): 93-112.

•Outline how you will perform a systematic literature review. Explain each step in
two to three sentences. (10 points
1. Formulate the problem
-The formulation of research problem is the most crucial part of the
research journey as the quality and relevance of your research project
entirely depends upon it
The process of formulating a research problem consist of a number of
steps working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level pf
knowledge in the broad subject area within which the study is to be
undertaken and the research methodology itself

2. Develop and Validate the Review Protocol

-The review protocol sets out the methods to be used in the review and provides an explicit
plan for your work. Decisions about the review question, inclusion criteria, search strategy,
study selection, data extraction, quality assessment, data synthesis and plans for dissemination
should be addressed. If modifications to the protocol are required, these should be clearly
documented and justified. Modifications may arise from a clearer understanding of the review
question, and should not be made because of an awareness of the results of individual studies.
Protocols help the systematic team stay on track and answering the original question, not
something else. It also establishes a time-frame so it assists the team moving forward along the
timeline.
The protocol should include:

• Search question or objective

• Inclusion/exclusion criteria (scope including types of studies, participants, interventions)
• Databases to be searched
• Proposed search strategy
• Methodology for data extraction and analysis
• Declaration of interests
• Time-frame

3. Searching Literature
-Literature search is an exhaustive search for published information on the
subject conducted systematically using all available bibliography finding
tools, aimed at locating possible an important initial step of any serious
research project.
-Identifies relevant information sources that are used to answer clinical
questions.
4. Screen for Inclusion
Effective inclusion and exclusion criteria create the ideal pool of
participants to get the most beneficial data for the study. • An
inclusion/exclusion list is a balance of broad yet specific criteria. • The
narrowness of inclusion/exclusion criteria has a direct impact on the
study’s recruitment and feasibility, while the broadness of criteria can
affect the data’s integrity.
4. Assist Quality.

Quality assessment is the data collection and analysis through which the
degree of conformity to predetermined standards and criteria are
exemplified. If the quality, through this process is found to be
unsatisfactory, attempts are made to discover the reason for this.
5. Extracting data

Data extraction is the act or process of retrieving data out of data sources
for further data processing or data storage. The import into the
intermediate extracting system is thus usually followed by data
transformation and possibly the addition of metadata prior to export to
another stage in the data workflow. Wikipedia

6. Synthesis and analysis

- A. collect and organize the data. Make data manageable
- Mine the data. identify what you see
- Sort and cluster the data . manipulate or reframe your data if necessary
- Identify insights , discuss, articulate and socialize your insights

7. Report findings

-One of the most important components of these reports is the “Results

and Discussion” section, also called the “Findings” report. This portion of
your paper summarizes main points but also provides interpretations of
your observations or data.

8. Read through the paper posted in your VLE: “Pautasso, Marco. "Ten simple rules for
writing a literature review." PLoS computational biology 9.7 (2013): e1003149.

• Summarize the ten rules for writing a literature review. Briefly describe each rule
in two to three sentences. (10 points)
Rule 1: Define a Topic and Audience
- The subject the writer chooses to address in his or her writing. Purpose: The intent of the writing
to inform or teach someone about something, to entertain people, or to persuade or convince the
audience to do or not do something. Audience: The intended readers of a particular piece of
writing.
AUDIENCE

When writing anything, consider who is being addressed. Audiences bring in their own
perspectives, biases, experiences, and expectations, which can make writing for a particular
audience difficult.
TOPIC

The topic is the content of your writing. The topic may be self-selected or assigned, but writers
should try and find an angle that they are motivated to write about. The topic should also be
broad enough to fit the assignment’s parameters and specific enough to go into detail.
Rule 2: Search and Re-search the Literature

Literature search is a key step in performing good authentic research. It helps in formulating a
research question and planning the study. The available published data are enormous;
therefore, choosing the appropriate articles relevant to your study in question is an art. It can
be time-consuming, tiring and can lead to disinterest or even abandonment of search in
between if not carried out in a step-wise manner. Various databases are available for
performing literature search. This article primarily stresses on how to formulate a research
question, the various types and sources for literature search, which will help make your search
specific and time-saving.

Rule 3: Take Notes While Reading

there are two main reasons why note-taking is important: When you are reading or listening,
taking notes helps you concentrate. In order to take notes - to write something sensible - you
must understand the text. As listening and reading are interactive tasks, taking notes help you
make sense of the text.t
The importance of good notes
1. organize your ideas and information from the text.
2. keep focused and stay engaged while reading.
3. keep a record of what you read so you can more easily locate it in the future.
4. think critically about what you read while you read.
5. draw conclusions and identify main ideas of the text.
Rule 4: Choose the Type of Review You Wish to Write

A mini-review is not necessarily a minor review: it may well attract more attention from busy
readers, although it will inevitably simplify some issues and leave out some relevant material
due to space limitations.
Rule 5: Keep the Review Focused, but Make It of Broad Interest. Whether your plan is to write a
mini- or a full review, it is good advice to keep it focused 16,17. Including material just for the
sake of it can easily lead to reviews that are trying to do too many things at once.

Rule 6: Be Critical and Consistent

After having read a review of the literature, a reader should have a rough idea of: the major
achievements in the reviewed field, the main areas of debate, and. the outstanding research
questions

Rule 7: Find a Logical Structure

logical structure refers to the way information in a document is organized; it defines the
hierarchy of information and the relation between different parts of the document. Logical
structure indicates how a document is built, as opposed to what a document contains.

Rule 8: Make Use of Feedback

Having read the review with a fresh mind, reviewers may spot inaccuracies, inconsistencies, and
ambiguities that had not been noticed by the writers due to rereading the typescript too many
times
Rule 9: Include Your Own Relevant Research, but Be Objective
However, bias could also occur in the other direction: some scientists may be unduly dismissive
of their own achievements, so that they will tend to downplay their contribution (if any) to a field
when reviewing it.
Rule 10: Be Up-to-Date, but Do Not Forget Older Studies

- consider cutting edged research

- don’t forget about old sleeping beautiful that may be relevant
- keep in mind electronic list of papers before they appeared in scientific database
Topic 4: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

9. A friend tells you that he or she is not sure of the difference between inductive and
deductive logic/reasoning. Describe what the terms mean and how a researcher
approaches theory development and testing through each logic form, then explain how
they can be combined. (10 points)
- The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning
aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory.
In other words, Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalizations.
Deductive reasoning works the other way around.

Inductive vs. deductive reasoning: Characteristics

1. In Inductive reasoning, the process followed is to move from specific observation to a
broader and generalized conclusion.
 2. In Deductive reasoning, the process begins with a general statement to prove it with a
logical conclusion.
3. Inductive reasoning is often called a “bottom-up approach” because you start from an
observation, detect patterns, formulate a hypothesis, and reach a conclusion/theory.
4. Deductive reasoning is often called a “top-down approach” because you start with a
theory, narrow it down to a hypothesis, observe the hypothesis, and ultimately reach a
logical affirmation.
5. In Inductive reasoning, the truth of the premises does not mean that the conclusion is
true as well.
6. In Deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion has to be true.
❖ Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning: Examples

➢ Example of Inductive Reasoning

Observation: Pet dogs in my neighborhood are friendly.

Observe a pattern: All observed dogs are friendly.
Theory: All dogs are friendly.

➢ Example of Deductive Reasoning

Theory: All dogs are friendly.

Hypothesis: All pet dogs in my neighborhood are friendly.
Test hypothesis: Observe all dogs in the neighborhood.
Conclusion: 7 out of 23 dogs in the neighborhood were not friendly= Reject the hypothesis

❖ Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning: Usage

When it comes to how we use inductive and deductive reasoning, the easy way to remember is
that inductive reasoning is fast and easy to use, so we use it daily in our life. However, deductive
reasoning is difficult to use in daily life since we need facts to prove the argument.

o Usage of Inductive Reasoning

✓ We use inductive reasoning for everyday use, such as:

• Determining when you should leave your house for work based on the traffic.
• Deciding on a special employee wellness program based on employee feedback.

o Usage of Deductive Reasoning

 ✓ Deductive reasoning is often used to solve a problem or make decisions.
• To determine what caused customer dissatisfaction & use it to offer the right solution.
• Designing a new store layout that will attract more customers & increase sales.

Inductive Reasoning Approach in Research

Inductive reasoning is a logical thinking process that integrates observations with experiential
information to draw a conclusion. You are employing the use of inductive reasoning every time
you look at a set of data and then form general conclusions on knowledge from past experiences.
Inductive research is usually used when there is a lack of existing literature on a topic. This is
because there is no existing theory that can be tested on the concept. The inductive training
approach can be categorized into the following three stages:
1. Observation
2. Observe a Pattern
3. Develop a Theory
To understand this approach better, let’s take a look at the following example:

Observation Observe a Pattern Develop a Theory

The low-cost editing apps, All observed low-cost All low-cost editing
App A and B, both editing apps apps experience
experience app glitches experience app app glitches
glitches

Book a Free Demo

Strengths and Limitations of Inductive Reasoning
Let’s evaluate inductive reasoning by taking a look at its strengths and weaknesses:

Strengths of Inductive Reasoning

1.Range of probabilities
One of the most prominent advantages of inductive reasoning is that it allows you to work with
a range of probabilities, expanding your perception and knowledge base despite the lack of
literature available.
2.Encourages exploration
Inductive training begins with an observation and then moves on to exploration to test the
judgment made.

Weaknesses of Inductive Reasoning

Limited scope
A drawback of inductive reasoning is that inferences are made from specific situations that may
not have significance in the real world.
❖ Deductive Reasoning Approach in Research
When employing deductive reasoning in research, you begin with a theory. This theory is then
narrowed down into more specific hypotheses that can be tested. These are further narrowed
down into observations that allow us to test the hypothesis to confirm whether the data supports
or rejects the hypothesis.
The deductive training approach can therefore be categorized into the following four stages:
1. Begin with an Existing Theory
2. Formulate a Hypothesis based on the Existing Theory
3. Collect Data to Test the Hypothesis
4. Analyze the results to see whether the Data Supports or Rejects the Hypothesis
To understand this approach better, let’s take a look at the following example:

Start with an Formulate a Test the Analyse the

Existing Theory Hypothesis Hypothesis Results

All low-cost If users select a Collect data 20 out of 50 of

editing apps low-cost editing on low-cost the low-cost
experience app, then they editing apps editing apps do
app glitches will experience not experience
app glitches app glitches
= Reject
Hypothesis

❖ Strengths and Limitations of Deductive Reasoning

Let’s evaluate deductive reasoning by taking a look at its strengths and weaknesses:

Strengths of Deductive Reasoning

Helps substantiate decisions

Deductive reasoning can be used to effectively substantiate decisions such as those related to
work. Also, if the decision doesn’t produce the desired results, you can still explain why you made
the decision by providing logical and objective explanations.
Reliable when the original premise is true
Another advantage of deductive reasoning is that your conclusion is almost guaranteed to be
true if all the original premises are true in all situations and if the reasoning applied is correct.

Weaknesses of Deductive Reasoning

Relies on initial premises being correct

Deductive reasoning heavily relies on the initial premises being correct. The final argument is
invalid if even one premise is found to be incorrect.

❖ Source
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/inductive-deductive-reasoning.

10. You are in a class discussing effective instructional procedures and the topic of qualitative
and quantitative research arises. A student in class asked the professor to describe briefly
what quantitative and qualitative research are. The professor asks for volunteers to
answer the question. Of course, being the high achieving student that you are, you
volunteer. How would you describe quantitative and qualitative research? Mention
possible differences in purpose, method, data sources, and data analysis. Also include the
advantages and disadvantages of each type. (10 points)
Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data,
such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively
perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.
Qualitative data is defined as non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs or audio
recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews, and
analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.
Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to
its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to
them.
Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)
The aim of qualitative research is to understand the social reality of individuals, groups and
cultures as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or live it. Thus, people and groups, are
studied in their natural setting.
Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a
particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to
generate hypotheses and theory from the data.
There are different types of qualitative research methods including diary accounts, in-depth
interviews, documents, focus groups, case study research, and ethnography.
The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understandings of how people perceive their
social realities, and in consequence, how they act within the social world.
The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview
to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of
visual materials or personal experience.
Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)
A good example of a qualitative research method would be unstructured interviews which
generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk
in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a
person’s understanding of a situation.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the
field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.
Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense
of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic
analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) or discourse analysis.
For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or
explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded
❖ Source
Researching for Hospitality and Tourism Management BHM-503T
Key Features
Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative
researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are
not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their
perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process
in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data, without the active participation of the
researcher, no data exists.
The design of the study evolves during the research, and can be adjusted or changed as it
progresses
For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality, it is subjective and exist only in reference
to the observer.
Theory is data driven, and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as
they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from
large-scale data sets.
The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective
nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional
standards of reliability and validity.
For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is
not possible to replicate qualitative studies. Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and
interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor can generalizations be made to a wider
context than the one studied with any confidence
The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation are lengthy. Analysis of
qualitative data is difficult and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to try to interpret
qualitative data, and great care must be taken when doing so, for example, if looking for
symptoms of mental illness.

Advantages of Qualitative research

Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider's view of the field. This
allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities)
by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
Qualitative descriptions can play the important role of suggesting possible relationships, causes,
effects and dynamic processes.
Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which are a reflection of
social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular
benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports in order to examine forms
of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.
Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data
to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.
The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables, make
predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.
Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenonomon across
different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Methods (used to obtain quantitative data)

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring
things. However, other research methods, such as controlled observations
and questionnaires can produce both quantitative information.
or example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative
data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,”
“no” answers).
Experimental methods limit the possible ways in which a research participant can react to and
express appropriate social behavior.
Findings are therefore likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions
which the researcher brings to the investigation.

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision making. We
can use statistics to summarise our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections.
Statistics
Descriptive statistics help us to summarise our data whereas inferential statistics are used to
identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and
control groups in a randomised control study).

Key Features
Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the
lab.
The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias), and is separated from the data.
The design of the study is determined before it begins.
For the quantitative researcher reality is objective and exist separately to the researcher, and is
capable of being seen by anyone.
Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not
allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions may have for those
participants (Carr, 1994).
Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively
affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small scale
quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010).
This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory
or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since
statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as
scientifically objective, and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis,
especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others
because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
Hypotheses can also be tested because of the used of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

BASIS FOR
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
COMPARISON

Meaning Qualitative research is a method of Quantitative research is a research

inquiry that develops method that is used to generate
understanding on human and numerical data and hard facts, by
social sciences, to find the way employing statistical, logical and
people think and feel. mathematical technique.

Nature Holistic Particularistic

Approach Subjective Objective

BASIS FOR
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
COMPARISON

Research type Exploratory Conclusive

Reasoning Inductive Deductive

Sampling Purposive Random

Data Verbal Measurable

Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented

Hypothesis Generated Tested

Elements of Words, pictures and objects Numerical data

analysis

Objective To explore and discover ideas used To examine cause and effect
in the ongoing processes. relationship between variables.

Methods Non-structured techniques like In- Structured techniques such as surveys,

depth interviews, group questionnaires and observations.
discussions etc.

Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action

❖ Source
Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS. Sage. Black, T. R. (1999).
Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research
design, measurement and statistics. Sage. Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic
analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. Carr, L. T. (1994).
The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research: what method for
nursing?. Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4), 716-721. Denscombe, M. (2010).
 The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill. Denzin, N., &
Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage
Publications Inc. Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968).
The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research,
17(4), 364. Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman
Cheshire. Punch, K. (1998).
Introduction to Social Research: Quantitatie and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage
Topic 5: Treatments and Controls

11. Figure out the independent and dependent variables in the following phenomena then
explain your answer in complete sentences.

a. Phenomenon: Fish Kill (5 points)

• Dissolved oxygen
• Water salinity
• Temperature
• Stocking density
• Presence or absence of parasites
• Presence or absence of heavy metals
Independent variables Dependent variables
• Temperature • Presence or absence of parasites

• Stocking density • Presence or absence of heavy

metals

• Water salinity • Age of fish

• Dissolved oxygen

-The independent variables are variables which cannot manipulated like the temperature , water
salinity

-A fish kill is the sudden and unexpected death of a number of fish or other aquatic animals
such as crabs or prawns over a short period of time and often within a particular area in the
wild.

Fish kills can occur anywhere in WA's fresh and marine waters and may happen at any time
throughout the year. Most fish kills occur as a result of fluctuations in the natural environment
with the most common cause being algal blooms and resulting water quality issues such as low
oxygen or production of toxins.
Fish kills can occur due to a wide range of factors including:
• Environmental factors such as changes in salinity, temperature, acidity levels, dissolved
oxygen levels and significant algal growth;
• natural events such as part of the lifecycle of the species in question;
• pollutants including pesticides, chemicals and sewage; and
• parasites and pathogens that contribute to seasonal disease outbreaks in fish
populations.

b. Phenomenon: Poor crop growth (5 points)

• Amount of nitrogen in the soil

• Amount of phosphorus in the soil
• Amount of rainfall
• Frequency of weeding
• Amount of potassium in the ground
• Soil temperature
Independent Dependent
• Soil Amount of nitrogen in the soil
temperature
¤
• Amount of phosphorus in the soil

• Amount of rainfall

• Amount of rainfall

The independent variable is soil temperature because it is constant which affect the growth of
the plants.
Drought, sustained winds, water-logged soil, poor quality transplants, temperature extremes,
and cloddy or compacted soils high in clay can all cause the stunting of young seedlings or
transplants.
12. A friend tells you that he is confused. He is taking a class in which the professor indicates
that true experimental designs are critical in determining cause-and-effect relationships.
Your friend indicates that he is not sure what a true experimental design is. What would
you tell him? (Hint: In your response, discuss the basic design features of true
experimental designs). (5 points)

Experimental Design
Experimental design is the process of researching in an objective and controlled manner to
optimize precision and reach particular conclusions about a hypothesis statement. The goal is to
determine the effect a factor or independent variable has on a dependent variable
Experimental Research
Experimental research is a type of scientific examination in which one or more independent
variables are changed and then applied to one or more dependent variables to see how they
affect the latter. The effect of independent variables on dependent variables is frequently
observed and recorded over time to help researchers reach a plausible conclusion about the link
between these two types of variables. The experimental research approach is frequently
employed in the physical and social sciences, psychology, and education. It is based on a simple
logic that compares two or more groups, but it can be challenging to implement. Experimental
research designs, most commonly associated with laboratory test procedures, entail gathering
quantitative data and doing statistical analysis on it during the study process.
Experimental Research Design in Following:
• Time is a critical aspect in establishing a cause-and-effect link.

• Cause-and-effect behaviour that is consistent.

• You want to comprehend the significance of cause and effect.

types of experimental design

The types of experimental study designs are into three types as Pre-experimental, quasi-
experimental, and real experimental.

. Pre-experimental study design: After incorporating cause and effect elements, a group, or
many groups, is kept under observation. You’ll perform this inquiry to see if additional research
is required for these specific groups.
Pre-experimental research can be divided into three categories:

• Case Study Research Design in a Single Session:

Only one dependent group or variable is investigated in this experimental study. It’s post-test
research since it’s done after some treatment that’s supposed to induce change.

• One-group Pre- and post-testing was used in the research:

By administering a test to a single group before and after treatment, this research design
incorporates post-test and pretest studies. The former is given at the start of treatment, while
the latter is given at the end.

• Comparison of static groups:

In a static-group comparison study, two or more groups are observed, with only one of the groups
receiving treatment while the other groups remain unchanged. All groups are retested after the
therapy, and the observed differences between them are presumed to be due to the treatment.

2. True Experimental research design:

True experimental research is the maximum accurate type of study because it depends
on biostatistical analysis to prove or reject a concept. Only a simple design, out of all the types of
experimental design, can demonstrate a cause-and-effect link inside a group. In an actual
experiment, three conditions must be met:
• Control Group that will not be affected by the modifications, and an Experimental Group
that will be exposed to the altered variables.
• The researcher has control over that a variable.
• The distribution is random.
3. Quasi-experimental Research Design:
“Quasi” indicates “partial,” “half,” or “false.” As a result, while quasi-experimental
research resembles actual experimental studies, it is not the same. Participants in quasi-
experiments are not assigned at random, and as a result, they are employed in situations where
randomization is problematic or impossible. This is a typical occurrence in educational research,
where administrators refuse to allow students to be chosen at random for experimental samples.
The time series, no corresponding control group design, and the counterbalanced design are
quasi-experimental research designs.
What Is the Purpose of Experimental Research Design?
The experimental study design benefits physical disciplines, social sciences, education, and
psychology. It’s utilized to make predictions and come to conclusions about a topic.
❖ Source
https://pubrica.com/academy/experimental-design/experimental-study-design-
research-types-of-design-methods-and-advantages/

• Your friend then asks you, “If all the design features of a true experimental design
are not present, what type of research is being done?” Explain to your friend what
quasi-experimental designs are. In your answer, describe how true experimental
and quasi-experimental designs are similar and how they are different. (5 points)

Basic Concepts of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research

Discovering causal relationships is the key to experimental research. In abstract terms, this means
the relationship between a certain action, X, which alone creates the effect Y. For example,
turning the volume knob on your stereo clockwise causes the sound to get louder. In addition,
you could observe that turning the knob clockwise alone, and nothing else, caused the sound
level to increase. You could further conclude that a causal relationship exists between turning
the knob clockwise and an increase in volume; not simply because one caused the other, but
because you are certain that nothing else caused the effect.
Independent and Dependent Variables
Beyond discovering causal relationships, experimental research further seeks out how
much cause will produce how much effect; in technical terms, how the independent variable will
affect the dependent variable. You know that turning the knob clockwise will produce a louder
noise, but by varying how much you turn it, you see how much sound is produced. On the other
hand, you might find that although you turn the knob a great deal, sound doesn't increase
dramatically. Or, you might find that turning the knob just a little adds more sound than expected.
The amount that you turned the knob is the independent variable, the variable that the
researcher controls, and the amount of sound that resulted from turning it is the dependent
variable, the change that is caused by the independent variable.
Experimental research also looks into the effects of removing something. For example, if you
remove a loud noise from the room, will the person next to you be able to hear you? Or how
much noise needs to be removed before that person can hear you?
Treatment and Hypothesis
The term treatment refers to either removing or adding a stimulus in order to measure an effect
(such as turning the knob a little or a lot, or reducing the noise level a little or a lot). Experimental
researchers want to know how varying levels of treatment will affect what they are studying. As
such, researchers often have an idea, or hypothesis, about what effect will occur when they cause
something. Few experiments are performed where there is no idea of what will happen. From
past experiences in life or from the knowledge we possess in our specific field of study, we know
how some actions cause other reactions. Experiments confirm or reconfirm this fact.
Causality
Experimentation becomes more complex when the causal relationships they seek aren't as clear
as in the stereo knob-turning examples.
Matching and Randomization
.
Selecting groups entails assigning subjects in the groups of an experiment in such a way that
treatment and control groups are comparable in all respects except the application of the
treatment.
Differences between Quasi-Experimental and Experimental Research
Thus far, we have explained that for experimental research we need:
 • a hypothesis for a causal relationship;
• a control group and a treatment group;
• to eliminate confounding variables that might mess up the experiment and prevent
displaying the causal relationship; and
• to have larger groups with a carefully sorted constituency; preferably randomized, in
order to keep accidental differences from fouling things up.

Methods: Five Steps

Experimental research can be roughly divided into five phases:
Identifying a research problem
The process starts by clearly identifying the problem you want to study and considering what
possible methods will affect a solution. Then you choose the method you want to test, and
formulate a hypothesis to predict the outcome of the test.
For example, you may want to improve student essays, but you don't believe that teacher
feedback is enough. You hypothesize that some possible methods for writing improvement
include peer workshopping, or reading more example essays. Favoring the former, your
experiment would try to determine if peer workshopping improves writing in high school seniors.
You state your hypothesis: peer workshopping prior to turning in a final draft will improve the
quality of the student's essay.
Planning an experimental research study
The next step is to devise an experiment to test your hypothesis. In doing so, you must consider
several factors. For example, how generalizable do you want your end results to be? Do you want
to generalize about the entire population of high school seniors everywhere, or just the particular
population of seniors at your specific school? This will determine how simple or complex the
experiment will be. The amount of time funding you have will also determine the size of your
experiment.
Continuing the example from step one, you may want a small study at one school involving three
teachers, each teaching two sections of the same course. The treatment in this experiment is
peer workshopping. Each of the three teachers will assign the same essay assignment to both
classes; the treatment group will participate in peer workshopping, while the control group will
receive only teacher comments on their drafts.
Conducting the experiment
At the start of an experiment, the control and treatment groups must be selected. Whereas the
"hard" sciences have the luxury of attempting to create truly equal groups, educators often find
themselves forced to conduct their experiments based on self-selected groups, rather than on
randomization. As was highlighted in the Basic Concepts section, this makes the study a quasi-
experiment, since the researchers cannot control all of the variables.
For the peer workshopping experiment, let's say that it involves six classes and three teachers
with a sample of students randomly selected from all the classes. Each teacher will have a class
for a control group and a class for a treatment group. The essay assignment is given and the
teachers are briefed not to change any of their teaching methods other than the use of peer
workshopping. You may see here that this is an effort to control a possible variable: teaching style
variance.
Analyzing the data
The fourth step is to collect and analyze the data. This is not solely a step where you collect the
papers, read them, and say your methods were a success. You must show how successful. You
must devise a scale by which you will evaluate the data you receive, therefore you must decide
what indicators will be, and will not be, important.
Continuing our example, the teachers' grades are first recorded, then the essays are evaluated
for a change in sentence complexity, syntactical and grammatical errors, and overall length. Any
statistical analysis is done at this time if you choose to do any. Notice here that the researcher
has made judgments on what signals improved writing. It is not simply a matter of improved
teacher grades, but a matter of what the researcher believes constitutes improved use of the
language.
Writing the paper/presentation describing the findings
Once you have completed the experiment, you will want to share findings by publishing academic
paper.
❖ source
http://kairos.technorhetoric.net/2.2/features/reflections/page1.htm