CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Socio-economic background is a multi-dimensional construct that encompasses the economic

and social circumstances of individuals, often characterized by factors such as family income,

parental educational levels, and occupation (Helbling et al., 2019). These dimensions collectively

contribute to shaping students' educational experiences, access to learning resources, and

academic outcomes (Keyserlingk et al., 2020). Consequently, educational systems worldwide

have been grappling with the challenge of addressing these disparities and devising strategies to

foster equitable opportunities for all students.

Numerous studies have underscored the adverse effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on

students' academic performance. In particular, students from economically disadvantaged

backgrounds often confront a multitude of obstacles that impede their academic progress (Gómez

and Suárez, 2020). Among these challenges, limited access to high-quality educational facilities

and resources, inadequate support structures, and reduced parental involvement feature

prominently in Şirin, S. (2005). Additionally, the experience of financial stress and insecurity in

low-socioeconomic households may further exacerbate students' cognitive engagement and

concentration, thus hindering their academic achievement. Suleman et al., 2014. In the quest for

survival, the nation has evolved a series of socioeconomic and educational measures and

policies, such as the structural adjustment program (SAP), the austerity measure, Universal

Primary Education (UPE), Universal Basic Education (UBE), and the devaluation of the naira.

These measures have not improved the socio-economic and educational status of families in the

country. They have rather increased their suffering and widened the socioeconomic gaps
between families. Many rural and sub-urban dwellers can no longer pay the school fees of their

children. Children are made to engage in subsistence farming, become housemaids, or engage in

other menial jobs to support their academic pursuits. Home background, according to the

Program International Studies Assessment (PISA) (2000), influences the academic and

educational success of students. The quality of parents and home background of students goes a

long way toward predicting their academic performances. Children from poor homes may suffer

because there may be no money to pay school fees, purchase books, uniforms, and other school

materials. Such a child may play tennis, thus his performance in school may be adversely

affected. Similarly, good parenting supported by a strong economic background could enhance

the academic performance of the child. In stark contrast, students from higher socio-economic

backgrounds are often better positioned to capitalize on an array of educational enrichment

opportunities and support systems, potentially augmenting their academic performance.

Keyserlingk et al. (2020). The academic performance of students in different disciplines has been

extensively investigated concerning socioeconomic background. Research has shed light on the

relationship between socioeconomic status and academic outcomes in diverse fields, including

mathematics, language arts, and science. Helbling, L., Tomasik, M., and Moser, U. (2019). In

most cases, parents socioeconomic background, family size, educational background, and

occupations may stand out to influence the children’s educational opportunities in school.

Parental income permits parents to assure their children’s schooling, buy their school uniform

and books, and provide them with adequate equipment to facilitate their education. Keyserlingk

et al. (2020). Children of parents with adequate income are likely to be provided with a high-

quality education from the nursery up to the university campus. Given this opportunity, it is

likely that such students will be less delinquent than their counterparts from poorer homes.
Gómez, R., and Suárez, A. (2020). The family is the first environment a child comes into contact

with. Parental income significantly influences students’ academic performance. Parents of high

socioeconomic status are able to provide the necessary incentives for their children’s learning;

with a higher level of income, they are able to provide better nourishment for the family. Parents

with a high income level are able to provide better nourishment for the family, which is crucial

for brain development. (Stephens et al., 2012). Students from low-income families tend to have

less opportunity to go to school than students from middle-class families and, by extension, the

upper class.

Family size plays a crucial role in children’s educational growth. A large family size places a lot

of pressure on a family’s lean resources as the parent will not be able to cater for the financial

needs of the children. Thus, this affects student academic performance (Nyama, 2006). Large

family sizes are a common feature of low-income families and do not encourage a positive

school attitude. Yet there are children who break even from these depressing and highly

retrogressive conditions to excel, although the percentage is minimal. The greater the family size,

the lower the educational attainment of children and students (Ibok, 2015). Large families suffer

low self-esteem, which negatively affects their academic performance (Alken and Barbrain,

2014). A large family may impede learning because the provision of adequate schooling and

essential facilities may be lacking. Large families are negatively related to children’s languages,

calculations, and academic achievement in school (Stephens et al., 2012).

Occupation is known to play a significant role in the health and acceptable behavior of any

person in society. Usually, occupations are classified based on sources, level of income,

education, and employment status. According to Larry (2010), occupation determines the

lifestyle, culture, mannerism, social and economic position, actions, and general behavior of an
individual. Occupational status reflects the educational attainment required to obtain a job and

income levels that vary with different jobs within the ranks of occupation (Stephens et al., 2012).

Occupational status measures social position by describing job characteristics, decision-making

ability and control, and psychological demand on the job (Stephens et al., 2012). Parents with

high occupational status are able to provide a measure of a household's ability to meet

emergencies, absorb economic shocks, and provide the means to live comfortably.

According to Checchi and Werfhorst (2017), occupational status corresponds to an individual's

educational attainment through obtaining better jobs, exploring and retaining better positions,

and becoming inevitable, which thus leads to an improvement in their socioeconomic status.

Parental high occupation status reflects in the income level of the parents. Parents with high

occupational rank are able to provide the necessary incentive for their children’s learning; with a

high income level, they are able to provide better nourishment for their family, while students

from low parental occupation status have few opportunities to go to school because their parents

lack adequate income to provide them with a high-quality education (Checchi and Werfhorst,

2017).

The educational level of parents determines their status and level of influence in society. The

importance of education by any standard in any society, especially in developing countries such

as Nigeria, cannot be overemphasized. A low educational background has the capacity to hinder

individuals from having a better knowledge of their needs for a prudent life (Checchi and

Werfhorst, 2017). Students of middle- and upper-class parents are more likely to take advantage

of the opportunities presented to them both in secondary and higher education institutions than

those children of poor laborers or factory workers who are hardly educated (Checchi and

Werfhorst, 2017). According to Stephens et al. (2012). Children from literate homes have higher
academic advancement than those from illiterate homes. Educational attainment varies with

income levels. Education provides diverse opportunities for individuals to function in society

(Stephens et al., 2012). Parents with high educational attainment and a high income level are

often more successful in preparing their children for school because they have access to a wide

range of resources to promote and support their children's education.

These studies have advanced our understanding of the mechanisms through which

socioeconomic background can exert its influence on students' educational trajectories. However,

despite the considerable body of research in this domain, there remains a noticeable dearth of

inquiry into the specific impact of socioeconomic factors on students' academic achievement in

the context of biology education. Moreover, recognizing the factors that contribute to disparities

in biology education can lay the groundwork for evidence-based policies and practices aimed at

promoting equitable opportunities for all students, irrespective of their socio-economic status

(Stephens et al., 2012). As education systems worldwide grapple with issues of inclusivity and

social justice, an in-depth examination of the effect of socioeconomic background on biology

students' academic achievement assumes heightened significance. The present research

endeavors to bridge this existing knowledge gap and contribute to the broader discourse on

educational disparities. By investigating the relationship between socioeconomic background and

academic achievement in the context of biology education, this study aspires to enrich our

understanding of the intricate dynamics at play. It is our hope that the findings of this research

will provide a nuanced perspective on the challenges and opportunities faced by biology students

from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds.

In conclusion, socio-economic background constitutes a pivotal determinant of students'

academic achievement in various educational disciplines. While existing research has

significantly contributed to elucidating the association between socioeconomic status and

academic outcomes, there remains a pressing need for further investigation, particularly in the

context of biology education. Understanding the intricacies of this relationship is vital for

devising targeted interventions and policies aimed at fostering an equitable and empowering

learning environment for biology students. By contributing to scholarship in this field, this

research seeks to support the overarching goals of promoting inclusivity, excellence, and social

mobility within educational systems.

On this background, this study was designed to investigate the influence of

socioeconomic background on the academic performance of biology students in Mkpat Enin

Local Government Area.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The problem of low socio-economic background and students’ poor academic performance is

clear and frequent in society today, as well as in daily experiences, especially in a country like

Nigeria. There is a considerable effect of socioeconomic background on students’ academic

success in biology. The separating nature of social class and ethnicity may likely diminish the

range of enriching experiences regarded as needed for building readiness to learn among

children. Social class and ethnicity dictate neighborhoods, housing, and access to resources that

effect enrichment or deprivation, as well as the learning of distinct value systems. Across all

socioeconomic classes, parents confront enormous hurdles when it comes to providing adequate

care and education for their children. For families in poverty, these hurdles can be considerable.

Sometimes, when basic requirements are inadequate, parents place high importance on housing,

food, clothing, and health care. Educational toys, games, and books may appear to be luxuries,

and parents may not have the time, energy, or knowledge to find inventive and less-expensive
ways to nurture children's education. Families with low socioeconomic status frequently lack the

financial, social, and educational resources that characterize families with high socioeconomic

status. Poor families may also have inadequate or limited access to community resources that

promote and support children's development and school readiness. Parents may have inadequate

abilities for such activities as reading to and with their children, and they may lack understanding

about childhood immunizations and nutrition. Having minimal resources and limited access to

accessible resources might severely affect families' decisions regarding their young children's

growth and learning. As a result, children from families with low socioeconomic status are at

greater risk of entering kindergarten unprepared than their peers from homes with median or high

socioeconomic status. It is little wonder that in communities today, child abuse has become a

prevalent practice among most caregivers and an agony for children who become victims of such

activities. It is disappointing that research carried out on this subject matter with relevant

recommendations being made has not or is yet to be adopted by the Nigerian government to

completely solve this issue. This is a serious subject of concern even in the education sector,

owing to its negative impact and ramifications on children’s academic pursuits, performances,

and the economy at large. Since knowledge of biology is useful in various fields of human

activities, the problem of this study is expressed in the form of a question: To what extent does

socio-economic background influence the academic performance of secondary school students in

biology in the Mkpat Enin Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State?

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between socioeconomic background

and the academic performance of secondary school biology students. By examining this

relationship, the study aims to provide insights into the potential disparities in academic
achievement among students from different socioeconomic backgrounds. Specifically, the study

aims to find out the following:

1. The influence of Parents occupation on Students Academic Performance in Biology.

2. The influence of Parents Educational level on Students Academic Performance in

Biology.

3. The influence of family size on Academic Performance of Biology Students.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:

1. Does parental occupation influence academic performance of student in Biology?

2. How does parental educational background influence academic performance of students in

biology?

3. To what extent does family size influence academic performance of student in Biology?

1.5 Hypotheses

Based on the existing literature, the following hypotheses are proposed:

1. There is no significant influence of parental occupation on academic performance of

students in biology.

2. There is no significant influence of parental educational background on academic

performance of students in biology.

3. There is no significant influence of family size on academic performance of students in

Biology.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study is significant because it addresses an important issue in education: the impact of

socioeconomic background on academic performance. By examining this relationship, the study

can contribute to a better understanding of the factors that influence academic achievement

among secondary school biology students. The findings of this study can inform educational

policies and interventions aimed at reducing disparities in academic achievement and promoting

equitable educational opportunities for all students, regardless of their socioeconomic

background. It will also be of immense benefit to the government, principals, teachers, parents as

well as students.

Government:

 Informed Policy Making: Government authorities can use the findings to make informed

decisions regarding education policies and resource allocation. For instance, they can

design targeted programs to support students from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Principals:

 Resource Allocation: School administrators can allocate resources more effectively, such

as providing additional support or scholarships to students who face socioeconomic

challenges.

 Curriculum Adjustment: Insights from the study can help them tailor the curriculum and

teaching methods to address the specific needs of students from diverse socioeconomic

backgrounds.

Teachers:

 Individualized Instruction: Teachers can use the study findings to adapt their teaching

methods to better meet the needs of students with varying socioeconomic backgrounds.
  Early Intervention: Recognizing the potential impact of socioeconomic factors, teachers

can identify struggling students early and provide additional support.

Parents:

 Informed Decision-Making: Parents can use the study to better understand the potential

challenges their children might face due to their socioeconomic background and take

steps to support their education accordingly.

 Advocacy: Armed with this information, parents may become advocates for changes in

school policies or additional resources in their children's schools.

Students:

 Self-Awareness: Students can benefit from understanding how their socioeconomic

background might influence their academic performance. This awareness can motivate

them to seek additional support, work harder, and set realistic academic goals.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study is limited to public secondary school biology student in Mkpat Enin Local

Government Area. It will focus specifically on the academic performance of secondary school

biology students and its relationship with socioeconomic background. Students socioeconomic

background examined includes parental income, family size, parental occupation and parental

educational background.

The researcher is aware that there are private schools in the area and that there are other indices

of socioeconomic background than the one used in this study.

1.8 Definition of Terms

Socioeconomic background: Refers to an individual's social and economic status, including

factors such as income, education level, and occupation.

Academic performance: Refers to the level of achievement or success in academic tasks, such

as grades, test scores, and overall academic progress.

Secondary school biology students: Refers to students who are enrolled in biology courses at

the secondary school level.

Augmenting: The process of increasing or enhancing something, often in terms of size, quantity,

or quality.

Delinquent: Refers to a person, typically a young person, who has failed to fulfill their legal or

financial obligations, such as not paying debts or engaging in illegal activities.

Retrogressive: Characterized by moving or progressing backward, in a direction contrary to

progress or improvement.

Impede: To hinder, obstruct, or slow down the progress or movement of something or someone.

Attainment: The act of achieving a goal, reaching an objective, or obtaining a particular level of

success or accomplishment.

Psychological Demand: Refers to the mental or emotional stress and pressure placed on an

individual due to various factors, such as work, personal life, or circumstances.

Prudent: Showing good judgment, wisdom, and care in making decisions, often with a focus on

avoiding risks or unnecessary harm.

Trajectories: The paths or routes that objects, events, or processes follow over time, typically in

a specific direction.

Domain: A specific area or field of knowledge, expertise, or activity, often associated with a

particular subject or discipline.

Dearth: A scarcity or shortage of something, typically resources, food, or supplies.

Disparities: Differences, inequalities, or gaps, often in terms of economic, social, or other

factors, between two or more things or groups.

Equitable: Fair, just, or impartial, often used to describe the distribution of resources or

opportunities in a way that treats all parties fairly.

Grapple: To engage in a struggle or wrestle with something, often in a metaphorical sense, such

as grappling with a complex problem.

Inclusivity: The practice or policy of ensuring that all individuals, regardless of their

background or characteristics, are included and have equal access to opportunities, resources,

and participation.

Extant: Currently existing, in existence, or still in use or relevance, often used in historical or

academic contexts.

Elucidating: The act of making something clearer or more understandable by explaining it in

detail or shedding light on it.

Intricacies: The complex or intricate details, components, or aspects of something, often

referring to the fine points that may not be immediately obvious.

 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OFLITERATURE

In this chapter, significant literature linked to the study was done under the following heading:

theoretical framework, conceptual review, review of empirical investigations and summary of

literature studied.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

2.1.1 Family System Theory by Dr. Murray Bowen (1990)

Family system theory is a comprehensive theory of psychology that explains the

interrelatedness of socio-economic position within the context of the family. According to

Bowen (1990), the family is a complex system that comprises of interdependent members who

impact each other's behavior and emotions. The family structure is also influenced by other

elements, such as culture, society, and environment. Bowen (1990) proposed eight concepts to

describe the dynamics and patterns of family functioning, such as differentiation of self,

triangles, nuclear family emotional system, family projection process, multigenerational

transmission process, emotional cutoff, sibling position, and societal emotional process (Kerr &

Bowen, 1988; Papero, 1990).

One of the key principles of family system theory is differentiation of self, which refers

to the ability of an individual to balance between emotional and intellectual functioning, and

between autonomy and intimacy in relationships. Differentiation of self-impacts how an

individual copes with stress and anxiety, and how they relate to others. Individuals with low
differentiation of self tend to be emotionally reactive, dependent, and fused with others, while

individuals with high differentiation of self tend to be emotionally stable, autonomous, and

flexible with others (Skowron & Friedlander, 1998; Peleg-Popko & Klingman, 2002).

Another key element of family system theory is triangles, which relate to the smallest stable

relationship unit in a family system. Triangles are established when two persons in dispute or

stress involve a third person to decrease tension or seek support. Triangles can be useful or

dysfunctional, depending on how they affect the relationships and communication among the

three people involved. Functional triangles can help to maintain stability and harmony in the

family system, whereas dysfunctional triangles can produce more issues and conflicts in the

family system (Titelman, 2008; Kerr & Bowen , 1988).

A third essential notion of family system theory is multigenerational transmission

process, which refers to the transmission of emotional patterns and behaviors from one

generation to another in a family system. Multigenerational transmission method can explain

how socio-economic position effects the academic achievement of children in a household. For

example, parents who have low socio-economic status may suffer more stress and worry, which

may influence their sense of self and their parenting style. They may also develop dysfunctional

triangles with their children or other relatives, which may damage their children's emotional

management and social skills. These factors may contribute to poor academic performance of

their children in school (Crosson-Towner et al., 2005; Reschly , 2020).

household system theory is essential to this study as it reveals some of the socio-economic

elements that affect the academic achievement of children in a household. Parents with low

socio-economic position may subject their children to hard environment and labor in search to

offer assistance to the family. In other words, when children are poorly supplied for and deprived
of the fundamental learning resources such as pens, pencils, books, such youngsters are very

likely to accomplish poorly in school work.

Families with high socio-economic background are able to provide their children with high-

quality child care, books, and toys to support youngsters in various learning activities at home.

They also have quick access to information regarding their children's health, as well as social,

emotional, and cognitive development. In addition, families with high socio-economic status

typically seek out information to help them better prepare their early children for school

(UNICEF , 2011; UNESCO , 2017).

2.1.2 Social support theory by S.Cohen & L.Syme (1988)

Social support theory is a concept that describes how social relationships and interactions

can improve the health and well-being of individuals and groups. According to Cohen and Syme

(1988), social support can be described as "the existence or availability of people on whom we

can rely, people who let us know that they care about, value, and love us" (p. 4). Social support

can be classified into four types: emotional support (the provision of empathy, care, and trust),

instrumental support (the provision of tangible aid and services), informational support (the

provision of advice, guidance, and feedback), and appraisal support (the provision of affirmation,

validation, and evaluation) (House et al., 1988).

Social support theory is significant to this study as it highlights some of the elements that

influence the academic achievement of children from varied socio-economic backgrounds.

According to this idea, social support can have direct impacts (increasing well-being and

reducing stress) and buffering effects (protecting against the negative impact of stressors) on

individuals' health and performance outcomes (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Social support can also
have good benefits on individuals' motivation, self-efficacy, self-regulation, and learning

techniques, which are vital for academic accomplishment (Wentzel et al., 2010; Ryan et al.,

2011).

Children from low socio-economic origins may experience more problems and pressures

in their academic and personal lives, such as poverty, violence, prejudice, low expectations, and

inadequate resources. These factors may hinder their cognitive, emotional, and social

development, and influence their academic achievement. Therefore, they may need extra social

assistance from their family, friends, teachers, and community to cope with these issues and to

develop their academic potential. However, children from low socio-economic homes may also

have less access to quality and quantity of social assistance than children from high socio-

economic backgrounds. For example, their parents may have insufficient time, education, or

income to offer them with adequate emotional, instrumental, informational, or appraisal support.

Their peers may also have comparable challenges or bad effects that may impair their academic

participation. Their professors may have lesser expectations or biases that may affect their

comments or instruction. Their community may have less resources or chances that may aid their

learning or growth (Sirin & Rogers-Sirin , 2013; Crosnoe , 2019).

Children from high socio-economic origins may have less problems and stressors in their

academic and personal lives, or they may have more resources and abilities to deal with them.

These factors may support their cognitive, emotional, and social growth, and affect their

academic accomplishment. Therefore, they may need less social support from their family,

friends, instructors, and community to attain their academic goals. However, children from high

socio-economic families may also have more access to quality and quantity of social assistance

than children from low socio-economic homes. For example, their parents may have greater
time, education, or income to offer them with enough emotional , instrumental , informational ,

or appraisal assistance . Their peers may also have comparable interests or positive impacts that

may boost their academic involvement. Their teachers may have higher expectations or supports

that may alter their feedback or instruction. Their community may have more resources or

chances that may promote their learning or growth ( Majoribanks , 2016; Lareau , 2011).

2.2 Conceptual Review

Parents Educational level and Students Academic Performance

Parents with higher levels of education often have higher academic expectations for their

children. They are more likely to emphasize the importance of education and set high standards

for their children's academic performance. They can help with homework, answer questions, and

provide guidance on academic matters. They may also be more engaged with their children's

schools, attending parent-teacher conferences and advocating for their children's educational

needs. Children of well-educated parents are more likely to grow up in intellectually stimulating

environments. These households often have more books, educational resources, and

opportunities for discussions about various topics. This exposure can contribute to the

development of a student's cognitive skills and curiosity. Parents with higher education levels

tend to have a better understanding of the importance of learning resources. They are more likely

to invest in books, educational software, and other tools that can enhance a child's learning

experience. This access to resources can provide a significant advantage to students. Well-

educated parents often have stronger language skills and a larger vocabulary. They communicate

more effectively with their children, which can lead to improved language development and
literacy skills in their offspring. Strong language skills are essential for success in all academic

subject. This can motivate students to work harder and excel in their studies.

In all the factors listed above, students whose parents are educationally disadvantaged, do not have access

to enjoy some privileges as children whose parents are educationally inclined.

Parents' educational level has been found to have a significant impact on students' academic

performance in biology. Numerous studies have examined the relationship between parental

educational level and students' academic achievement, and the majority of them have found a

positive correlation (Garbacz et al., 2017).

Research has shown that parental involvement, which is often influenced by socioeconomic

status (SES), plays a crucial role in students' academic achievement. Studies have indicated a

high correlation between SES and parental involvement. Additionally, parental educational

involvement has been found to have a positive influence on students' grades, regardless of gender

(Garbacz et al., 2017).

Variations in parental education levels and ethnicity have also been observed. Among higher

parental education groups, parent academic involvement has been associated with fewer

behavioral problems, which in turn are related to achievement and aspirations (Emmanuel,

2021). This suggests that parental education can have a cascading effect on various aspects of

students' academic performance.

Furthermore, a study by found that variables such as a conducive learning environment, parental

motivation, desire for success, and the quality of biology teachers can enhance students'

academic performance in biology (Azonwu & Ochonma, 2023). This highlights the importance

of both the home and school environment in supporting students' achievement.

The labor participation status of mothers has also been found to affect children's academic

performance by influencing family education expenditure (Dan, 2020). Positive reinforcement

and support from well-educated parents can enhance a student's self-confidence and self-

efficacy. These psychological factors can positively impact a student's academic performance

and willingness to take on challenging subjects.

This suggests that parental education and involvement are intertwined with other factors, such as

family dynamics and financial resources, which can impact students' academic outcomes.

Moreover, studies have shown that parental involvement has a considerable impact on the

academic achievement of students (Pinatil et al., 2022). Parents' participation in education

activities at school has been positively correlated with high scores and grades. This emphasizes

the importance of parental engagement in supporting students' academic success.

While there is generally a positive correlation between parental and child educational attainment,

some studies have found a weaker relationship in immigrant families (Clarke, 2018). This may

be attributed to the "immigrant paradox" where less educated parents prioritize their children's

education and invest more resources in their academic development. Parental educational level

has been consistently linked to students' academic performance in biology. Parental involvement,

socioeconomic status, and the home and school environment all play important roles in shaping

students' achievement. It is crucial for educators and policymakers to recognize the impact of

parental education and involvement and implement strategies to support and empower parents in

their role as partners in education.

Family size and students’ Academic Performance

The influence of parents' occupation on students' academic achievement is a complex and

multifaceted subject that can be influenced by a range of circumstances. While parental

occupation might play a role in defining a student's educational experience, it is simply one of

several factors that can effect academic performance. Here are some ways in which parents' work

can influence students' academic performance. Parents' work typically impacts the

socioeconomic level of a family. Families with higher wealth may have more access to

educational resources, such as tutoring, extracurricular activities, and educational materials,

which can significantly improve a student's academic achievement, Altschul (2012) Parents

that have excellent occupations can serve as great role models for their children. They can inspire

their children to work hard, set educational goals, and respect academic performance. The time

and energy parents can commit to their children's education may differ depending on their work.

Parents with demanding occupations that require long hours may have less time to be actively

involved in their children's school activities and homework, which can have an impact on

academic success, Suleman et al. (2014). High-stress occupations and poor work-life balance in a

family might contribute to a less conducive home environment for learning. Stress within the

family might impair pupils' emotional well-being and focus on academics.

Parents in various occupations may have higher expectations for their children's academic

performance. This can generate increased pressure on students to perform academically. The

location of a family's house and parents' jobs might effect the quality of schools and educational

possibilities available to youngsters. Families in more affluent communities may have access to

better schools and services.

Parents in particular occupations may have useful networks and contacts that might help their

children with educational and employment prospects, Madegwa et al. (2019).

It's important to note that the impact of parents' occupation on students' academic

performance varies from one family to another and can be influenced by numerous other factors,

including the family's cultural background, the parents' level of education, and the students' own

motivation and abilities. While parental occupation can play an influence, it is not the single

determinant of academic performance. A supportive and nurturing family environment,

competent education, and the student's own efforts and abilities also play key roles in academic

accomplishment, Li et al. (2022).

Family Size and Student Academic Performance

The influence of family size on academic performance is a topic that has been explored

by educators and researchers to understand how the size of a family may impact a student's

educational outcomes. Family size refers to the number of siblings and family members living

together in a household. This influence can vary depending on a range of conditions and is not

purely deterministic. Here are some general ideas into how family size can effect academic

success. In larger households, resources such as time, attention, and financial means are

generally split among more children. This division can result in less one-on-one attention from

parents, limited access to educational materials, and financial restraints that might impair a

student's ability to participate in extracurricular activities or receive additional educational

support (Marley & Wilcox, 2021).

Larger families often require parents to manage more duties and expectations, potentially

leaving them with less time available to actively engage in their children's education. In contrast,
smaller families may allow more freedom for parents to participate in educational activities and

promote their children's learning, (Alammar et al., 2022).

Siblings can act as both beneficial and negative influences on academic success. Older

siblings can serve as role models and provide academic support, while younger siblings may

require attention, potentially leading to distractions and reduced study time, (Aye et al., 2019).

Smaller families often allow students to receive more concentrated attention from their parents,

providing tailored aid with schoolwork and other school-related activities.

Family size can influence parents' hopes and expectations for their children's academic

accomplishments. In bigger families, parents may have various expectations for each child, while

in smaller families, there may be stronger expectations for academic success (Lam et al., 2021).

Cultural and economical factors can interact with family size. In some cultures, larger

families are prevalent, and extended family networks can give support and resources.

Additionally, the socioeconomic position of the family can influence how family size affects

academic success, Blaabæk et al. (2019)

It's crucial to emphasize that the impact of family size on academic success is not a one-

size-fits-all issue. Many students from larger families perform academically, whereas many

students from smaller households may encounter academic issues. Individual qualities, parental

participation, the quality of educational resources, and other factors play a considerable effect in

predicting academic achievement, (Jensen & McHale 2015).

2.2 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Economists have also studied the effect of family size on educational attainment. Lao & Lin

(2022) noted that family size has been found to have an impact on educational attainment,

including years engaged in schooling and level of education completed. However, the

relationship between family size and educational attainment may vary depending on the context

and other factors.

Contrary to these findings, Azonuche (2021) found that family size does not influence

academic performance of students. This suggests that the relationship between family size and

academic performance may not be consistent across different populations or settings.

The family environment and functions can also play a role in academic performance.

Alammar et al. (2022) found that the family has an effect on academic performance through

factors such as academic self-efficacy and students' perception of progress toward academic

goals. This suggests that the quality of family functioning and support can mediate the

relationship between family size and academic performance.

Furthermore, family type has been found to influence academic performance. Maurine

et al. (2022) reported that family type influenced the academic performance of secondary school

students. However, Hofferth Maurine et al. (2022) found differences in educational attainment

gaps between students from different family structures.

In terms of educational attainment, Blaabæk et al. (2019) found that family size has a

negative causal effect on educational attainment. However, the negative effect was smaller in

families with stronger social ties. This suggests that the social context and support within the

family can moderate the relationship between family size and educational attainment.
 One meta-analysis conducted by Şirin (2005) reviewed the literature on socioeconomic

status (SES) and academic achievement. The study found that SES has a significant influence on

student academic performance. Students from higher SES backgrounds tend to have better

academic outcomes compared to students from lower SES backgrounds.

Another study by Perry et al. (2022) examined the relationship between school SES and

academic achievement using quantile regression analysis. The study found that the effect of

school socioeconomic composition on academic achievement varies across different levels of

student performance. The impact is stronger for lower-performing students compared to high-

performing students.

Moneva et al. (2020) highlighted the significant impact of socioeconomic status on

academic performance. The study emphasized that socioeconomic status should not hinder

students from achieving their academic goals.

Destin et al. (2019) investigated the disparities in academic achievement between

students from different socioeconomic backgrounds. The study found that students from higher

SES backgrounds consistently outperform their lower SES counterparts.

Additionally, Xu et al. (2019) explored the relationship between school socioeconomic

status, teacher-student relationships, and academic achievement in China. The study revealed

that SES can influence individual students' academic achievement through its impact on teacher-

student relationships.

Furthermore, Suleman et al. (2014) examined the effects of parental socioeconomic status on the

academic achievement of secondary school students in Pakistan. The study found that low
socioeconomic status negatively affects students' academic performance due to unfulfilled needs

and demands.

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