Instructor: Sulaman Ahmad Naz

 Argument
 Format of Argument
 Premises & Conclusion
 Rules of Inference
◦ Examples
 Valid / Invalid Arguments
 Critical Rows & Tautology
 Fallacies
 Practice Questions
 Show that the premises
◦ “It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than
yesterday,”
◦ “We will go swimming only if it is sunny,”
◦ “If we do not go swimming, then we will take a
canoe trip,” and
◦ “If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by
sunset”
 lead to the conclusion
◦ “We will be home by sunset”
 Premises
◦ “It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than
yesterday,”
◦ “We will go swimming only if it is sunny,”
◦ “If we do not go swimming, then we will take a
canoe trip,” and
◦ “If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by
sunset”
 Conclusion
◦ “We will be home by sunset”
 Premises
◦ ~s^c ~s^c
◦ w→s w→s
◦ ~w→c ~w→c
◦ c→h c→h
 Conclusion --------------
◦ h ∴h
~s^c
--------------
∴~s Simplification Rule

~s
w→s
--------------
~s^c
∴~w Modus Tollens w→s
~w→c
c→h
--------------
∴h
 ~w ~s
~w→c ~w
-------------- c
∴c Modus Ponens

c
c→h
~s^c
-------------- w→s
~w→c
∴h Modus Ponens c→h
--------------
∴h
 Show that the premises
◦ “If you send me an e-mail message, then I will
finish writing the program,”
◦ “If you do not send me an e-mail message, then I
will go to sleep early,” and
◦ “If I go to sleep early, then I will wake up feeling
refreshed”
 lead to the conclusion
◦ “If I do not finish writing the program, then I will
wake up feeling refreshed”
 Premises
◦ “If you send me an e-mail message, then I will
finish writing the program,”
◦ “If you do not send me an e-mail message, then I
will go to sleep early,” and
◦ “If I go to sleep early, then I will wake up feeling
refreshed”
 Conclusion
◦ “If I do not finish writing the program, then I will
wake up feeling refreshed”
 Premises
◦ e→f e→f
◦ ~e→s ~e→s
◦ s→r s→r
 Conclusion --------------
◦ ~f→r ∴~f→r
e→f
--------------
≡~evf Implication Law

~e→s
--------------
e→f
≡ ~(~e) v s Implication Law ~e→s
≡evs Double Negation Law s→r
------------
∴~f→r
~evf ~evf
evs evs
--------------
∴fvs Resolution

s→r
e→f
-------------- ~e→s
≡ ~s v r Implication Law s→r
------------
∴~f→r
fvs ~evf
~s v r evs
-------------- fvs
~s v r
∴fvr Resolution

fvr
e→f
-------------- ~e→s
≡~f→r Implication Law s→r
(Reversed) ------------
∴~f→r
 We can also solve a problem in a number of
ways.

 Here, we present an alternate way to solve the

same problem.
~e→s
s→r
--------------
∴~e→r Hypothetical Syllogism

~e→r
-------------- e→f
≡ ~(~e) v r Implication Law ~e→s
s→r
≡evr Double Negation Law
------------
∴~f→r
e→f ~e→r
-------------- evr
≡~evf Implication Law

~evf
evr
e→f
-------------- ~e→s
∴fvr Resolution s→r
------------
∴~f→r
fvr ~evf
-------------- evs
≡~f→r Implication Law ~evf
fvr
(Reversed)

e→f
~e→s
s→r
------------
∴~f→r
 If P(x) is true for all x and c is a particular
member of the domain, then P(c) is also true.

All women are wise.

-------------------
Lisa is wise.
(Because she belongs to the domain of all women)
Here the member can be either arbitrary or specific
 If P(x) is true for some x then there is at least
one member of the domain c for which P(c) is
also true.

Some students have not attended all the classes.

-------------------
Mr. ABC has not attended all the classes.
(Because Mr. ABC belongs to the domain of students of the class
and he did not attend all the classes)
Here the member is specific not arbitrary
 Reverse of Universal Instantiation.
 If P(c) is true for all elements c in the domain
then ∀xP(x) is also true.

(Lisa) has two eyes.

.
.
.
-------------------
Every human has two eyes.
(Because this is true for all elements of the domain)
Here the member is arbitrary.
 Reverse of Existential Instantiation.
 When a particular element c with P(c) is
known, then ∃xP(x) is also TRUE.

Ali has passed the Discrete Mathematics.

-------------------
At least one student has passed Discrete
Mathematics.
Here the member is specific.
 Universal Instantiation & Modus Ponens are
often used together. We combine them as
UNIVERSAL MODUS PONENS
∀ ( )→ ( )
∴ →
∀ ( )→ ( )

∴
→ ( )

∴
 Similarly, Universal Instantiation & Modus
Tollens are also combined as UNIVERSAL
MODUS TOLLENS
∀ ( )→ ( )
∴ →
∀ ( )→ ( )
~
∴~
→ ( )
~
∴~
 Assume that For all positive integers n,
◦ “If n is greater than 4, then n2 is less than 2n”

 Use UNIVERSAL MODUS PONENS to show that

◦ 1002 < 2100
 Premises
◦ “For all positive integers n, if n is greater than 4,
then n2 is less than 2n”

 Conclusion
◦ 1002 < 2100

 We know that
◦ 100 is greater than 4
 Premises
◦ ∀n (G(n)→L(n)) ∀n (G(n)→L(n))
◦ G(100) G(100)
--------------
 Conclusion ∴ L(100)
◦ L(100)
 ∀n (G(n)→L(n))
G(100)
--------------
∴ L(100)

By UNIVERSAL MODUS PONENS

∀ ( )→ ( )
∀n (G(n)→L(n))
∴ G(100)
------------
∴ L(100)
 Chapter 1

◦ Section 1.6
 Related Problems only
 Chapter 1

◦ Section 1.6
 Page 73 – 78
 End of Lecture
 Q/A