MODULE NO.

5 MODULE TITLE WIND

Table A-II/1 F1.C1: Plan and conduct a passage and determine

COMPETENCE
position
COURSE CO1: Interpret information obtained from ship borne meteorological
OUTCOMES instruments while vessel is underway.
KNOWLEDGE
A-II/1 F1.C1.KUP 8.1: Ability to use and interpret information obtained
UNDERSTANDING
from shipborne meteorological instruments.
PROFICIENCY

1. Explain the relation of Saffir-Simpson Hurricane wind Scale (SSHWS) to

LEARNING the Beaufort Wind Force Scale.
OUTCOMES 2. Describe empirically the Beaufort wind force scale according to its mean
wind speed equivalent, deep sea criterion, sea states and descriptive term

TOPIC BEAUFORT SCALE

LESSON PRESENTATION & ACTIVITIES

Beaufort scale, in full Beaufort wind force scale, scale devised in 1805 by
Commander (later Admiral and Knight Commander of the Bath) Francis Beaufort
of the British navy for observing and classifying wind force at sea. Originally based
on the effect of the wind on a full-rigged man-of-war, in 1838 it became mandatory
for log entries in all ships in the Royal Navy. Altered to include observations of the state of the
sea and phenomena on land as criteria, it was adopted in 1874 by the International
Meteorological Committee for international use in weather telegraphy.
Watch the video:
`5.1 Beaufort Scale Explained (MP4)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDm1V90Cgec
5.2 The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (MP4)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=za9cIBUdk1Q
This is also available in your USB-OTG: Video No. 5
Activity 1: Please answer these questions:
State in brief the different between wind speed of the Beaufort Wind Scale and the Saffir-
Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale.

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 Terms and Definitions
Beaufort scale is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed
conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale.
Sir Francis Beaufort was an Irish hydrographer, rear admiral of the Royal Navy,
and creator of the Beaufort cipher and the Beaufort scale.
Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS), formerly the Saffir–Simpson hurricane
scale (SSHS), classifies hurricanes – Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones – that exceed
the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms – into five categories distinguished
by the intensities of their sustained winds.
Captain Robert Fitz Roy who was later to set up the first Meteorological Office (Met Office)
in Britain giving regular weather forecasts.
Robert Homer Simpson was an American meteorologist, hurricane specialist, first director of
the National Hurricane Research Project from 1955–1959, and a former director of the
National Hurricane Center.
Herbert Seymour Saffir was an American civil engineer who co-developed the Saffir–
Simpson Hurricane Scale for measuring the intensity of hurricanes. As recently as 2005 Saffir
was the principal of Saffir Engineering in Coral Gables,
Robert Fitz Roy FRS was an English officer of the Royal Navy and a scientist. He achieved
lasting fame as the captain of HMS Beagle during Charles Darwin's famous voyage.
George Simpson, CBE (later Sir George Simpson), director of the UK Meteorological
Office, was responsible for this and for the addition of the land-based descriptors. The
measures were slightly altered some decades later to improve its utility for meteorologists.
Neil Laverne Frank is an American meteorologist and former director of the National
Hurricane Center in Florida. He was instrumental in advancing both the scientific and
informational aspects of hurricane forecasting.
Jim Kossin NOAA research scientist who said that the potential for more intense hurricanes
was increasing as the climate warmed.
BEAUFORT SCALE
The Beaufort scale (boʊfərt) is an empirical measure
that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea
or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale.
The scale was devised in 1805 by the Irish hydrographer Francis
Beaufort (later Rear Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort), a Royal
Navy officer, while serving on HMS Woolwich.
The scale that carries Beaufort's name had a long and complex
evolution from the previous work of others (including Daniel Sir Francis Beaufort
Defoe the century before) to when Beaufort was Hydrographer of
the Navy in the 1830s when it was adopted officially and first used
during the voyage of HMS Beagle under Captain Robert Fitz Roy who was later to set up the
first Meteorological Office (Met Office) in Britain giving regular weather forecasts. In the 18th
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century, naval officers made regular weather observations, but there was no standard scale
and so they could be very subjective – one man's "stiff breeze" might be another's "soft
breeze". Beaufort succeeded in standardizing the scale.
The initial scale of thirteen classes (zero to twelve) did not reference wind speed numbers
but related qualitative wind conditions to effects on the sails of a frigate, then the main ship of
the Royal Navy, from "just sufficient to give steerage" to "that which no canvas sails could
withstand".
The scale was made a standard for ship's log entries on Royal Navy vessels in the late
1830s and was adapted to non-naval use from the 1850s, with scale numbers corresponding
to cup anemometer rotations. In 1853, the Beaufort scale was accepted as generally
applicable at the First International Meteorological Conference in Brussels. In 1916, to
accommodate the growth of steam power, the descriptions were changed to how the sea, not
the sails, behaved and extended to land observations. Rotations to scale numbers were
standardized only in 1923. George Simpson, CBE (later Sir George Simpson), director of
the UK Meteorological Office, was responsible for this and for the addition of the land-based
descriptors. The measures were slightly altered some decades later to improve its utility
for meteorologists. Nowadays, meteorologists typically express wind speed in kilometers per
hour or miles per hour, but Beaufort scale terminology is still used for weather forecasts for
shipping[4] and the severe weather warnings given to the public.
The Beaufort scale was extended in 1946 when forces 13 to 17 were added. However,
forces 13 to 17 were intended to apply only to special cases, such as tropical cyclones.
Nowadays, the extended scale is only used in Taiwan and Mainland China, which are often
affected by typhoons. Internationally, WMO Manual on Marine Meteorological Services (2012
edition) defined the Beaufort Scale only up to force 12 and there was no recommendation on
the use of the extended scale.
Today, hurricane-force winds are sometimes described as Beaufort scale 12 through 16,
very roughly related to the respective category speeds of the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale,
by which actual hurricanes are measured,
where Category 1 is equivalent to Beaufort
12. However, the extended Beaufort
numbers above 13 do not match the Saffir–
Simpson scale. F1 tornadoes on the Fujita
scale and T2 TORRO scale also begin
roughly at the end of level 12 of the Beaufort
scale, but are independent scales –
although the TORRO scale wind values are
based on the 3/2 power law relating wind
velocity to Beaufort force.
Wave heights in the scale are for conditions
in the open ocean, not along the shore.
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 THE BEAUFORT WIND SCALE

Beaufort Wave Land Sea conditions Associated

Description Wind speed Sea conditions
number height conditions (photo) warning flag

< 1 knot
< 1 mph Smoke rises
0 Calm
< 2 km/h
0 ft (0 m) Sea like a mirror
vertically.
< 0.5 m/s

1–3 knots Ripples with Direction

1–3 mph 0–1 ft appearance of shown by
1 Light air 2–5 km/h
0–0.3 m
scales are smoke drift
0.5– formed, without but not by
1.5 m/s foam crests wind vanes.
Small wavelets
still short but
4–6 knots Wind felt on
more
4–7 mph face; leaves
1–2 ft pronounced;
2 Light breeze 6–11 km/h
0.3–0.6 m crests have a
rustle; wind
1.6– vane moved
glassy
3.3 m/s by wind.
appearance but
do not break
Large wavelets;
7–10 knots crests begin to Leaves and
8–12 mph break; foam of small twigs in
Gentle 12– 2–4 ft glassy constant
3 breeze 19 km/h 0.6–1.2 m appearance; motion; light
3.4– perhaps flags
5.5 m/s scattered white extended.
horses
11–
16 knots
Small waves Raises dust
13–
becoming and loose
Moderate 18 mph 3.5–6 ft
4 breeze 20–
longer; fairly paper; small
1–2 m frequent white branches
28 km/h
horses moved.
5.5–
7.9 m/s
Moderate
17–
waves taking a
21 knots Small trees in
more
19– leaf begin to
pronounced
24 mph 6–10 ft sway; crested
5 Fresh breeze
29–
long form; many
wavelets form
2–3 m white horses
38 km/h on inland
are formed;
8– waters.
chance of some
10.7 m/s
spray

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 Large
22– Large waves branches in
27 knots begin to form; motion;
25– the white foam whistling
Strong 31 mph 9–13 ft crests are more heard in
6 breeze 39– extensive telegraph
3–4 m
49 km/h everywhere; wires;
10.8– probably some umbrellas
13.8 m/s spray used with
difficulty.
Sea heaps up
28– and white foam
Whole trees
33 knots from breaking
in motion;
High wind, 32– waves begins to
inconvenienc
moderate 38 mph 13–19 ft be blown in
7 gale, 50– streaks along
e felt when
4–5.5 m walking
near gale 61 km/h the direction of
against the
13.9– the
wind.
17.1 m/s wind; spindrift b
egins to be seen
Moderately
high waves of
34–
greater length;
40 knots
edges of crests Twigs break
39–
18–25 ft break into off trees;
Gale, 46 mph
8 fresh gale 62– 5.5–7.5 m
spindrift; foam generally
is blown in well- impedes
74 km/h
marked streaks progress.
17.2–
along the
20.7 m/s
direction of the
wind
41– High waves;
47 knots dense streaks of Slight
47– foam along the structural
Strong/ 54 mph 23–32 ft direction of the damage
9 severe gale 75– wind; sea (chimney pots
7.5–10 m
88 km/h begins to roll; and slates
20.8– spray affects removed).
24.4 m/s visibility
Very high waves
with long
overhanging
48–
crests; resulting Seldom
55 knots
foam in great experienced
55–
29–41 ft patches is inland; trees
Storm, 63 mph
10 whole gale 89–
blown in dense uprooted;
9–12.5 m white streaks considerable
102 km/h
along the structural
24.5–28.4
direction of the damage.
m/s
wind; on the
whole the
surface of the
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 sea takes on a
white
appearance;
rolling of the
sea becomes
heavy; visibility
affected
Exceptionally
high waves;
small- and
medium-sized
ships might be
for a long time
56–
lost to view
63 knots Very rarely
behind the
64– experienced;
37–52 ft waves; sea is
Violent 72 mph accompanied
11 storm 103–
covered with
by
11.5–16 m long white
117 km/h widespread
patches of
28.5– damage.
foam;
32.6 m/s
everywhere the
edges of the
wave crests are
blown into
foam; visibility
affected.
The air is filled
with foam and
≥ 64 knots spray; sea is
≥ 73 mph ≥ 46 ft completely
Hurricane fo
12 rce
≥
≥ 14 m
white with Devastation.
118 km/h driving spray;
≥ 32.7 m/s visibility very
seriously
affected

The Beaufort scale is not an exact nor an objective scale; it was based on visual and subjective
observation of a ship and of the sea. The corresponding integral wind speeds were determined
later, but the values in different units were never made equivalent .

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 SAFFIR–SIMPSON HURRICANE SCALE
The Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS), formerly the Saffir–
Simpson hurricane scale (SSHS), classifies hurricanes – Western
Hemisphere tropical cyclones – that exceed the intensities of tropical
depressions and tropical storms – into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their
sustained winds.
To be classified as a hurricane, a tropical cyclone must have one-minute maximum
sustained winds of at least 74 mph (33 m/s; 64 kts; 119 km/h) (Category 1). The highest
classification in the scale, Category 5, consists of storms with sustained winds over 156 mph
(70 m/s; 136 kts; 251 km/h). The classifications can provide some indication of the potential
damage and flooding a hurricane will cause upon landfall.
The Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale is based on the highest average wind over a one-
minute time span and is officially used only to describe hurricanes that form in the Atlantic
Ocean and northern Pacific Ocean east of the International Date Line.
There is some criticism of the SSHWS for not accounting for rain, storm surge, and other
important factors, but SSHWS defenders say that part of the goal of SSHWS is to be
straightforward and simple to understand.
The scale was developed in 1971 by civil engineer Herbert Saffir and meteorologist Robert
Simpson, who at the time was director of the U.S. National Hurricane Center (NHC). The scale
was introduced to the general public in 1973, and saw widespread use after Neil Laverne
Frank replaced Simpson at the helm of the NHC in 1974.
The initial scale was developed by Herbert Saffir, a structural engineer, who in 1969 went
on commission for the United Nations to study low-cost housing in hurricane-prone
areas. While conducting the study, Saffir realized there was no simple scale for describing the
likely effects of a hurricane. Mirroring the utility of the Richter magnitude scale for describing
earthquakes, he devised a 1–5 scale based on wind speed that showed expected damage to
structures. Saffir gave the scale to the NHC, and Simpson added the effects of storm
surge and flooding.
In 2012, the NHC expanded the windspeed range for Category 4 by 1 mph in both
directions, to 130–156 mph, with corresponding changes in the other units (113–136 kts, 209–
251 km/h), instead of 131–155 mph (114–135 kts, 210–249 km/h). The NHC and the Central
Pacific Hurricane Center assign tropical cyclone intensities in 5 knot increments, and then
convert to mph and km/h with a similar rounding for other reports. So, an intensity of 115 kts
is rated Category 4, but the conversion to miles per hour (132.3 mph) would round down to
130 mph, making it appear to be a Category 3 storm. Likewise, an intensity of 135 kts
(~155 mph, and thus Category 4) is 250.02 km/h, which, according to the definition used
before the change would be Category 5. To resolve these issues, the NHC had been obliged
to incorrectly report storms with wind speeds of 115 kts as 135 mph, and 135 kts as 245 km/h.
The change in definition allows storms of 115 kts to be correctly rounded down to 130 mph,
and storms of 135 kts to be correctly reported as 250 km/h, and still qualify as Category 4.
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Since the NHC had previously rounded incorrectly to keep storms in Category 4 in each unit
of measure, the change does not affect the classification of storms from previous years. The
new scale became operational on May 15, 2012.

SAFFIR-SIMPSON HURICANE WIND SCALE

CATEGORY 1
Very dangerous winds will produce some damage
Sustained winds Most recent
Category 1 storms usually cause no significant
structural damage to most well-constructed permanent
structures; however, they can topple
33–42 m/s unanchored mobile homes, as well as uproot or snap
weak trees. Poorly attached roof shingles or tiles can
64–82 kts. blow off. Coastal flooding and pier damages are often
associated with Category 1 storms. Power outages are
119–153 km/h typically widespread to extensive, sometimes lasting
several days. Even though it is the least intense type of
74–95 mph hurricane, they can still produce widespread damage
and can be life-threatening storms.
Lorena in 2019 near landfall In Baja
California Sur

CATEGORY 2 Extremely dangerous winds will cause extensive

damage
Sustained winds Most recent
Storms of Category 2 intensity often damage roofing
material (sometimes exposing the roof) and inflict
damage upon poorly constructed doors and windows.
43–49 m/s Poorly constructed signs and piers can receive
considerable damage and many trees are uprooted or
83–95 kts. snapped. Mobile homes, whether anchored or not, are
typically damaged and sometimes destroyed, and
154–177 km/h many manufactured homes also suffer structural
damage. Small craft in unprotected anchorages may
96–110 mph break their moorings. Extensive to near-total power
Arthur in 2014 approaching outages and scattered loss of potable water are likely,
North Carolina possibly lasting many days.

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 CATEGORY 3 Devastating damage will occur

Sustained winds Most recent Tropical cyclones of Category 3 and higher are described
as major hurricanes in the Atlantic or Eastern
Pacific basins. These storms can cause some structural
damage to small residences and utility buildings,
particularly those of wood frame or manufactured
materials with minor curtain wall failures. Buildings that
50–58 m/s
lack a solid foundation, such as mobile homes, are usually
destroyed, and gable-end roofs are peeled off.
96–112 kts.
Manufactured homes usually sustain severe and
irreparable damage. Flooding near the coast destroys
178–208 km/h
smaller structures, while larger structures are struck by
floating debris. A large number of trees are uprooted or
111–129 mph
snapped, isolating many areas. Additionally, terrain may
Otto in 2016 at its be flooded well inland. Near-total to total power loss is
Nicaragua landfall. likely for up to several weeks and water will likely also be
lost or contaminated.

CATEGORY 4
Catastrophic damage will occur
Sustained winds Most recent
Category 4 hurricanes tend to produce more extensive
curtainwall failures, with some complete structural
failure on small residences. Heavy, irreparable damage
58–70 m/s and near complete destruction of gas station canopies
and other wide span overhang type structures are
113–136 kts. common. Mobile and manufactured homes are often
flattened. Most trees, except for the heartiest, are
209–251 km/h uprooted or snapped, isolating many areas. These storms
cause extensive beach erosion, while terrain may be
130–156 mph flooded far inland. Total and long-lived electrical and
water losses are to be expected, possibly for many weeks.
Harvey in 2017 nearing landfall
in Texas.

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 Catastrophic damage will occur
CATEGORY 5 Category 5 is the highest category of the Saffir–Simpson
scale. These storms cause complete roof failure on many
Sustained winds Most recent
residences and industrial buildings, and some complete
building failures with small utility buildings blown over or
away. Collapse of many wide-span roofs and walls,
especially those with no interior supports, is common. Very
heavy and irreparable damage to many wood frame
structures and total destruction to mobile/manufactured
homes is prevalent. Only a few types of structures are
capable of surviving intact, and only if located at least 3 to
5 miles (5 to 8 km) inland. They include office,
condominium and apartment buildings and hotels that are
of solid concrete or steel frame construction, multi-story
≥ 70 m/s concrete parking garages, and residences that are made of
either reinforced brick or concrete/cement block and
≥ 137 kts. have hipped roofs with slopes of no less than 35 degrees
from horizontal and no overhangs of any kind, and if the
≥ 252 km/h windows are either made of hurricane-resistant safety glass
or covered with shutters. Unless all of these requirements
≥ 157 mph are met, the absolute destruction of a structure is certain.
The storm's flooding causes major damage to the lower
Dorian in 2019 nearing its
floors of all structures near the shoreline, and many coastal
Bahamas landfall.
structures can be completely flattened or washed away by
the storm surge. Virtually all trees are uprooted or
snapped and some may be debarked, isolating most
affected communities. Massive evacuation of residential
areas may be required if the hurricane threatens populated
areas. Total and extremely long-lived power outages and
water losses are to be expected, possibly for up to
several months.

According to Robert Simpson, there are no reasons for a Category 6 on the

Saffir–Simpson Scale because it is designed to measure the potential damage of
a hurricane to human-made structures. Simpson stated that "... when you get up
into winds in excess of 155 mph (249 km/h) you have enough damage if that
extreme wind sustains itself for as much as six seconds on a building it's going to cause
rupturing damages that are serious no matter how well it's engineered." Nonetheless, the
counties of Broward and Miami-Dade in Florida have building codes that require that critical
infrastructure buildings be able to withstand Category 5 winds.

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 Meteorology for Seafarers – by: Commander C. R. Burgess, R.N.

Meteorology for Seafarers – Commander C. R. Burgess, R.N.

Mariner’s Weather Handbook – Steve & Linda Dashew
The American Practical Navigator – Chapter 35 – Weather Elements
by: Nathaniel Bowditch
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaufort_scale

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffir%E2%80%93Simpson_scale

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDm1V90Cgec

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=za9cIBUdk1Q

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