Tropical Revolving Storms

7.1 Introduction
A Tropical Revolving Storm is a cyclonic1 disturbance originating in the tropics. It involves
strong convection, frequently extending from the surface to the tropopause.

Characteristics:
 smaller size than temperate depressions
 nearly circular isobars
 no fronts
 very steep pressure gradient
 great intensity

World Meteorological Organisation nomenclature is based on wind speed:

Description Wind speed Beaufort force
Tropical depression <= 33 kts <= 7
Moderate tropical storm 34 - 47 kts 8 and 9
Severe tropical storm 48 - 63 kts 10 and 11
Hurricane or synonym >64 kts 12

Synonyms:
Cyclone Indian Ocean
Hurricane North Atlantic, Caribbean, central and east North Pacific, and South Pacific
Typhoon Western North Pacific and South China Sea

Extreme values of elements:

Pressure 870 hectoPascals (hPa)
Rainfall 95 mm/h
Storm surge 13 m. (Sea level rise due to low atmospheric pressure, wind and shallow water)
Wind speed 185 kts
Wave height 34 metres
Size Approximate radius of gale force winds, minimum 30 NM, maximum 600 NM
Duration 31 days

Tropical storms are potentially capable of overwhelming the largest and most seaworthy
vessels and should be avoided if at all possible. The area of greatest danger is the eye
where sea waves are both extremely high and approach from all directions.

1
An atmospheric system characterized by the rapid inward circulation of air masses about a low-pressure
centre, usually accompanied by stormy, often destructive weather. Cyclones circulate counter clockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 7.2 Development of Tropical Revolving Storms

7.2.1 Conditions for formation

Considerable energy is required for the formation and development of a tropical revolving
storm.

This is derived from energy contained in water vapour and particularly latent heat released
by condensation.

The following conditions are required:

 Sea temperature greater than 26°C over a large area raising air temperature and
humidity.
 Atmospheric instability due to high Environment Lapse Rate.
 Instability accentuated by high humidity increasing Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
 Latitude greater than 5° where the Coriolis Force is sufficient to provide vorticity,
cyclonic circulation.
 Low wind shear (change of wind speed with altitude) in the troposphere permitting
vertical development.
 Conditions permitting divergence of airflow at altitude, removing air from the area
and reducing atmospheric pressure.
 A tropical disturbance to initiate the process. This is likely to be convection
associated with an easterly wave, the InterTropical Convergence Zone.

7.2.2 Tropical Revolving Storm areas and seasons

Areas of tropical revolving storm genesis are in approximately 10° latitude in the warmest
areas of the oceans.

These, with months of highest occurrence and average annual frequency, are:
North Atlantic August - October 9
North Indian Ocean May - June, October - November 6
North Pacific West July - October 26
North Pacific East August - September 13
South Atlantic 3 ever, first in March 2004
South Indian Ocean West January - March 8
South Indian Ocean East January - March 10
South Pacific West January - March 6
Global total 79

Average monthly frequency of Tropical Revolving Storms

Area J F M A M J J A S O N D
North Atlantic 0.1 0.4 0.5 1.5 2.6 1.9 0.5
Western North Pacific 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.0 3.2 4.2 4.6 3.2 1.7 1.2
Eastern North Pacific 0.1 0.8 0.7 1.0 1.9 1.0 0.1
Western North Indian Ocean 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 .3 0.1
Eastern North Indian Ocean 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.4
South Atlantic <0.1
Western South Indian Ocean 1.3 1.7 1.2 0.6 0.2 0.1
Eastern South Indian Ocean 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
Western South Pacific 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.3

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7.2.3 Tropical Revolving Storm development
Considerable research continues into the details of tropical storm formation.

Broadly the sequence is:

 Preconditions exist. These do not inevitably lead to storm formation, but are the
minimum criteria required.
 Reduced pressure leads to airflow toward the centre.
 Coriolis Effect produces cyclonic motion.
 Convection and convergence produce ascending airflow at the centre.
 Adiabatic cooling of ascending air leads to condensation.
 Condensation releases latent heat, which accentuates convection.
 Divergence at altitude permits further ascent and convergence at the surface.
 The system intensifies and acquires the structure of a Tropical Revolving Storm.

7.2.4 Structure of a Tropical Revolving Storm

Elements of the structure:

 Outer convective band of cumulus cloud.
 Annular zone of descending air clear of cloud.
 Inner convective band of deep cumulus, and cumulonimbus extending to the
tropopause, in spiral bands moving toward the centre.
 Eye Wall of high velocity wind moving parallel to the isobars and ascending
rapidly.
 Eye, descending air warming adiabatically and cloud free. Horizontal wind speed
very low.
 Canopy of cirrus clouds at the troposphere in the divergent outflow, some of
which descends in the annular zone.

7.2.5 Movement
Tropical revolving storms move approximately with the flow of air in the troposphere in
their vicinity.

A high proportion of storms move around the oceanic anticyclone into higher latitudes.
 Others move westward with a degree of pole ward movement.
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 Movement may be highly erratic within the broad pattern.
 Speed varies from approximately 10 knots near the equator to 25 knots in higher
latitudes.

7.2.6 Decay
Tropical Revolving Storms endure as long as conditions lie within the necessary
parameters.

Decay occurs when the energy required for sustained activity is no longer available.

This occurs when the storm moves over an area where temperature and humidity are
reduced. This may be a land surface in the tropics or a sea surface in the tropics or
higher latitudes where temperatures are lower.

A Tropical Revolving Storm may cross a landmass, decreasing in intensity, then regenerate
over a warm sea surface again. Tropical Revolving Storms cross the Central American
isthmus, the Philippines archipelago, Taiwan, the Malaysian peninsula, Madagascar and
Australia in this way.

A Tropical Revolving Storm may decrease in intensity and lose its tropical characteristics
in middle latitudes (35° - 45°) and become a middle latitude depression.

7.2.7 Weather conditions

From the annular zone to the eye wall:

 Pressure decreases.
 Wind speed increases.
 Angle of Indraft decreases.
 Sea wave height increases.
 Swell wave direction is from
wind field near eye.
 Swell wave height increases.
 Cloud cover is total.
 Precipitation increases in
intensity.
In the eye:
 Pressure steadies.
 Wind speed low or calm.
 Sea waves may be low.
 Swell waves are extremely high
and moving in all directions.
 Cloud cover may be absent.
 Precipitation may be absent.

From the eye wall to the annular zone

 Pressure increases.
 Wind speed immediately rises to maximum, then decreases.
 Wind direction is opposite to the original.
 Angle of Indraft is zero then increases.
 Sea wave height is maximum, then decreases.
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  Swell wave direction is from opposite wind field near eye.
 Swell wave height decreases.
 Cloud cover is total.
 Precipitation is intense then decreases.

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7.3 Avoidance of Tropical Revolving Storms

The following apply to tropical latitudes.

Comprehensive warnings are broadcast by radio and telex of known storms and these
sources should be closely monitored when navigating in areas prone to Tropical Revolving
Storms in the appropriate seasons. GMDSS radio installations receive navigation warnings,
including Tropical Revolving Storm warnings, automatically. Other sources are listed in the
Admiralty List of Radio Signals, Volume III, and similar publications.

7.3.2 Detection
Not all storms are detected by shore based meteorological services, and shipboard
instruments and observation of meteorological phenomena should be used to detect the
presence of a Tropical Revolving Storm.

7.3.2.1 Swell
In open waters, with no intervening land, a swell generated by the high seas within a
Tropical Revolving Storm may be the earliest warning of a storm. The swell approaches
from the direction of the storm.

7.3.2.2 Atmospheric pressure.

In the tropics the diurnal variation of atmospheric pressure is marked and a normal
feature. Falling pressure in the area affected by a Tropical Revolving Storm initially
damps the diurnal variation, and the disappearance of this feature is an early warning
sign of Tropical Revolving Storm development. A barograph trace indicates this clearly.
In the absence of a barograph atmospheric pressure should be noted at hourly intervals
and the changes observed.

The atmospheric pressure in the tropics varies little from the seasonal average. The
seasonal average pressure appears in publications such as Routeing Charts and Sailing
Directions. Observed atmospheric pressure should be corrected for altitude to Sea
Level, and for diurnal variation. Altitude correction tables are provided to observing
ships, Diurnal Variation Tables are contained in Sailing Directions. (At 25°C the rate of
change of pressure with altitude is approximately 0.11 hPa per metre.)

Comparing the seasonal average with the corrected pressure:

 A fall of 3 hPa below the seasonal average for the area indicates the probable
development of a Tropical Revolving Storm in the vicinity.
 A fall of 5 hPa below the seasonal average for the area indicates the presence of a
Tropical Revolving Storm, probably within 200 NM.

Atmospheric pressure recorded in logbooks and transmitted to meteorological services

should be corrected for altitude only, not diurnal variation. Decreasing atmospheric
pressure indicates the approach of a Tropical Revolving Storm.

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 7.3.2.3 Wind
Wind direction and speed is generally fairly constant in the tropics. Variation from the
normal direction for the area and season, and increasing wind speed, are indications of
the approach of a Tropical Revolving Storm.

7.3.2.4 Clouds
Vivid colouring of the sky at sunrise and sunset may be a precursor of a Tropical
Revolving Storm. Cirrus clouds increasing in density may be visible 300 to 600 NM from
the storm and are followed by lower clouds increasing in coverage as it approaches.

7.3.2.5 Visibility
Exceptionally good visibility frequently exists in the vicinity of a Tropical Revolving
Storm.

7.3.2.6 Radar
Radar is capable of detecting the precipitation of a Tropical Revolving Storm. The range
is limited and other signs will probably manifest before the storm is within radar range.

7.3.2.7 Reporting
The Master is required by SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 31 to inform the nearest
authority and shipping in the vicinity if winds of Beaufort force 10 and above are
encountered and no storm warning has been received.

Similar warnings are required if the presence of a Tropical Revolving Storm is suspected
or established.

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 The message should include:

 A statement of the presence of a Tropical Revolving Storm or storm force wind

 Date and time Universal Co-ordinated Time (UTC)
 Position of vessel
 Barometric pressure corrected to sea level
 Barometric tendency
 True wind direction
 Wind force Beaufort
 Sea state
 Swell direction, height and period
 Vessel’s course and speed

Subsequently, similar messages should be transmitted at hourly intervals if possible, but

not greater than three hourly intervals, while the vessel is in the vicinity of the storm.

7.3.3 Avoidance

7.3.3.1 Features of a Tropical Revolving Storm

Northern Hemisphere
 The Track is the historical route the
storm has followed.
 The Path is the route the storm is
forecast to follow.
 The Trough Line is a line through the centre at right angles to the path.
 The Vortex is the eye of the storm.
 The Vertex is the westerly extremity
of the path when the storm recurves.

Southern Hemisphere

The Dangerous Quadrant is the Advance

Right Quadrant of the storm in the Northern Hemisphere, and the Advance Left Quadrant
in the Southern Hemisphere.

This is because: Southern Hemisphere

 The storm is likely to recurve in this
direction.
 Winds tend to drive the vessel into
the Path of the storm.
 Sea waves running toward the Path
hamper movement away from the
Path.
 The cross swell from the vicinity of
the Trough Line running across the
sea waves is likely to be more severe
in this quadrant.
 Wave heights are likely to be higher
in this area.

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The navigable Semicircle is the Left Semicircle in the Northern Hemisphere, and the Right
Semicircle in the Southern Hemisphere.

 The storm is unlikely to move into this area.

 Winds tend to drive the vessel out of the path of the storm in the advance quadrant.

7.3.3.2 Establishing the vessel's position relative to the storm.

The vessel should heave to so that the vessel's movement does not modify changes in the
elements that will then be due to the storm’s movement.

7.3.3.3 The direction of the vortex

Buys-Ballots law together with the angle of indraft is used to establish the direction of
the centre of the storm.

1 Face the wind.

2 Low pressure lies on the right in the Northern Hemisphere and on the left in the
Southern Hemisphere.
3 The direction is 90° + Angle of Indraft from the wind direction.

Approximate Angle of Indraft.

Pressure starts to fall 4 points

Pressure has fallen 10 hPa 2 points
Pressure has fallen 20 hPa 0 points

7.3.3.4 The Distance Of The Vortex

In the absence of other information, assume that the centre is approximately 200 NM
away if the pressure has fallen 5 hPa and the wind is approximately Force 6, and
approximately 100 NM away if the wind is Force 8.

7.3.3.5 Relative position

The following description and table may be used to establish the observer’s position
relative to the storm. These are true for both northern and southern hemispheres.

Steady conditions may indicate a stationary storm.

Position relative to Tropical Revolving Storm
Sector Wind Direction Wind force Pressure
Path Steady Increasing Falling
Right Advance Veering Increasing Falling
Right Trough Line Veering Steady Steady
Right Rear Veering Decreasing Rising
Track Steady Decreasing Rising
Left Advance Backing Increasing Falling
Left Trough Line Backing Steady Steady
Left Rear Backing Decreasing Rising

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 7.3.3.6 The future movement of the storm
In addition to the above:
 Storms are unlikely to move toward the equator.
 In latitudes less than approximately 20° storms are unlikely to move eastward.

7.3.3.7 Actions to avoid the worst effects of the storm.

Northern Hemisphere
Dangerous Quadrant
 Steer a course with the wind ahead or on the starboard bow and proceed at maximum
practicable speed.
 Alter course as the wind veers.
(From a position close to the Path it may be practicable to cross the path into
the Navigable Semicircle as below.)

In the Path
 Steer a course with the wind on the starboard quarter and proceed with maximum
practicable speed into the navigable semicircle.

Navigable Semicircle
 Steer a course with the wind on the starboard quarter and proceed with maximum
practicable speed away from the path.
 Alter course as the wind backs.

Rear
 Heave to with the wind on the starboard bow and allow the storm to move clear of
the intended course.

Southern Hemisphere
Dangerous Quadrant
 Steer a course with the wind ahead or on the port bow and proceed at maximum
practicable speed.
 Alter course port as the wind backs.

(From a position close to the Path it may be practicable to cross the path into the
Navigable Semicircle as below.)

In the Path
 Steer a course with the wind on the port quarter and proceed with maximum
practicable speed into the navigable semicircle.

Navigable Semicircle
 Steer a course with the wind on the port quarter and proceed with maximum
practicable speed away from the path.
 Alter course as the wind veers.

Rear
 Heave to with the wind on the port bow and allow the storm to move clear of the
intended course.

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 7.3.3.8 Subsequent action.
All parameters must be monitored to assess the movement of the storm, and the action
taken modified accordingly.

7.3.3.9 Danger sectors

When reports of the storm's position and forecast movement are available danger sectors
may be plotted.

1 The position of the storm is plotted.

2 The forecast path is plotted.
3 A sector is plotted centred on the position, 40° on either side of the forecast
path, radius the forecast movement with an allowance for greater speed than
forecast.
4 The vessel is manoeuvred to avoid the sector.

The process is repeated with each forecast received.

7.3.3.10 Other factors

The actions above may have to be modified due to factors such as the proximity of land
or shallow water.

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