GEORGE ASIMELLIS LECTURES IN OPTICS, VOL 1

4 SIMPLE OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Optical engineering is a discipline that specializes in the design of optical instruments that use
light to view or analyze objects. Telescopes, microscopes, camera lenses, and slit lamps are
examples of such devices. All optical instruments have the potential to combine optical
elements such as mirrors, lenses, prisms, and refracting surfaces, as well as mechanical and
electronic components such as digital image detectors.

4.1 CAMERA OBSCURA

The camera obscura (Latin for dark chamber) may be considered the simplest optical
instrument. Its principle of operation involves the most naturally occurring effect in optics:
rectilinear propagation.

The camera obscura attracted the attention of the 11th century Arab scholar Abū ʿAlī al-
Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham, also known as Alhazen. Alhazen is renowned for his
remarkable contribution to the ‘awakening’ of the science known as Optics. He used a dark
chamber to study the solar eclipse by observing the image formed on the inner lining of the
chamber.

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Figure 4‐1: Camera obscura principle of operation. From every object point, a single ray is received, to
which the small pinhole provides a one‐to‐one correspondence between the object point and a single point
at the image plane.

This very simplistic arrangement has been fundamental in the study of optics for many
centuries. Most, if not all, of our understanding of imaging optics—from the human eye all the
way to the Hubble telescope—can be traced back to this primitive device.

The camera obscura is simply a dark box with a small pinhole in one side. Rays from a
single object point enter through the pinhole and project to the other inner wall, casting the
image. The camera is dark because a very small set of rays from a particular point reaches the
screen. The image is inverted, and, of course, it simply disappears when the object goes away.
If we add a small lens with a focal length that is close to the chamber depth, a brighter and
sharper image is formed. If no lens is added, we have a simple pinhole camera.

Figure 4‐2: Seventeenth century illustration of a dark chamber. Note the inverted image of Brunelleschi's
Duomo, Florence projected onto the wall (Library of Congress image from Wikimedia Commons under
license CC0).

The magnification of the pinhole camera image depends directly on the ratio of the
image location to the object location. The good news is that the image location is precisely
known and equals the depth of the camera. Thus, the absolute image size is inversely
proportional to the ratio of the object distance from the pinhole to the pinhole distance from
the rear inner wall of the chamber. This is not particular to a dark chamber; it applies equally to
the human eye and to photography. The angular magnification, however, remains equal to 1.0

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because there is no change in the apparent angle of observation (the eye or a photography
camera can accommodate this because both use a ‘lens’).

Figure 4‐3: The absolute image size depends on the camera depth, but the apparent angle remains
constant.

Dense foliage can be a good example of a dark chamber with multiple pinholes.
Multiple images of the solar disk can be imaged on the floor; the sizes of these images vary
depending on the foliage height.

Figure 4‐4: Openings through the foliage act as pinhole chambers. By measuring the foliage height and
image size (diameter), we can estimate the solar disk diameter.

Figure 4‐5: Foliage may function as pinholes and form images of the solar disk on the ground. The images
are not sharp due to diffraction effects.

For good resolution, the pinhole diameter must be very small. For diameters up to a few
millimeters, the smaller the pinhole diameter, the better the resolution (larger resolving ability).

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However, there is an antagonist effect, diffraction, which is due to the wave nature of light.
Diffraction is associated with the opposite trend: The smaller the pinhole, the more intense the
effect of diffraction, resulting in a less sharp image. Image brightness is another consideration.
The smaller the pinhole, the darker the image. In applications that use a photographic plate to
capture the image, very large exposure times may be necessary (more than 30 seconds).

Figure 4‐6: (left) A smaller‐diameter pinhole results in a clear but dim image. (right) A larger‐diameter
pinhole results in a brighter (more rays) but less sharp image (rays do not converge at the same point).

Figure 4‐7: (left) Camera obscura and (right) the inverted image (photos by Ryan Cheah from
www.lomography.com/magazine/119346‐diy‐camera‐obscura reprinted with permission).

Figure 4‐8: In a pinhole camera, the depth of field is nearly infinite. Almost anything in front of the camera
can be imaged on the same focal plane, regardless of the distance from the camera.

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Figure 4‐9: Light in a dark room may enter through a pinhole that is small enough to form an inverted
image of the outside object space on the wall [photos by Abelardo Morell reprinted with permission (left
photo from MoMA; right photo from www.abelardomorell.net)].

An empirical rule for image sharpness optimization has been proposed by Paul
Brenner.35 In several variations, Brenner’s rule states that the pinhole diameter d is
proportional to the square root of the focal length f of the lens, or, simply, the depth of the
chamber:

Brenner’s Rule: d  2f   (4.1)

where λ is the median wavelength for the visible (0.5 μm). For example, in a camera with
chamber depth 4 cm, the ideal pinhole diameter is 0.2 mm.

Geometrical optics: Wave optics:

Smaller pinhole diameter makes a Smaller pinhole diameter increases

sharper image. diffraction, making a less sharp image.

4.1.1 The Camera Obscura in Art

The pinhole camera is an artistic photographic tool with a broad range of applications. The fact
that this camera is still in use is particularly telling in our ‘digital’ times. The facility of digital
photography has to a large degree eroded general interest in traditional photography and its
artistic and sensory aspects.

Using just a pinhole in one side of a light-sealed box and a simple film on the other side
(unfortunately, this is the very film that we have almost abandoned), we can have a nearly
‘magical’ photography camera. All we need is a simple device to let light through.

35
Brenner P. Pinhole cameras. View Camera. 1995;44-6.

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Figure 4‐10: (left) Artistic effect achieved with a quadruple‐pinhole camera in a photograph entitled ‘How
many are there?’ (photo by Eberhard Mollenkopf reprinted with permission). (right) Photograph entitled
‘Valongo‐Port of Santos / Brazil’ shows how a long exposure can reveal a sense of depth of field and motion
(photo by Mauricio Sapata reprinted with permission).

Figure 4‐11: (left) ‘Ariel VH in 3‐D,’ photograph by Charles Bulloch. This is an example of a monochrome
anaglyph image stereogram (here, rendered in red and cyan). (right) Principle of operation of a double‐
pinhole camera: The chamber has two pinholes a short distance apart. A chromatic filter (blue or red) is
placed in front of each pinhole. The two images provide a stereoscopic sense when viewed with
dichromatic stereoscopic binoculars.

The camera obscura is essentially a closed optical box with a small pinhole
on one side. Usually there is a small lens in front of the pinhole.

The pinhole camera is a camera obscura with no lens in front of the

pinhole.

The camera obscura is used widely in artistic photography, with

impressive results.

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4.2 THE HUMAN EYE

The most essential of all optical instruments is the human eye. Objects of observation can
include: the sun (of course, we do not want to observe it directly), which is the primary light-
emitting source; the clouds, acting as scattering sources; or a shiny diamond, which is a
reflecting light source. Whatever the mechanism of light production, each object sends rays of
light toward the eye. Visual optics describes the processing of these rays that enter the optical
system of the human eye. This optical system consists primarily of two positive lenses, the
cornea and the crystalline lens.

The cornea is a converging lens with optical power36 ≈ 40 D. The crystalline lens is also
a converging lens with optical power (in the relaxed state) ≈ 20 D. The medium outside of the
human eye is air (n = 1), whereas the interior of the eye is filled with a jelly-like substance, the
vitreous body with refractive index n΄ ≈ 1.336. The first approximation to describe the human
eye’s ocular refraction is the sum the optical powers of the cornea and the lens (≈ 40 + 20 =
60 D). This corresponds to an equivalent focal length in air: f ≈ 0.016 m = 16 mm.

When we apply the optical power F and focal length f relationship for a medium with index n,

n nair n
Optical Power, human eye: F    vitreous  60 D (4.2)
f fair f vitreous

we find that the internal focal length of the human eye is f vitreous ≈ 22 mm. This distance serves
as the inner focal plane of the human eye. Another distance in the eye is the axial length
(≈ 24 mm), which runs along the axis from the anterior cornea to the posterior pole on the
retina.

Figure 4‐12: Human vision is based on the formation on the retina of a real image by the optical system of
the eye. The object is usually far away from the front focal point of the eye.

36
Geometrical Optics § 6.1.2.3 The Cornea Equivalent Power and § 2.4.2.3 Dependence on Geometry.

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As in every optical system, there are six cardinal points. Because the values for the
external and internal refractive indices and are different, the principal points do not coincide
with the nodal points. Their separation [according to the relationship in Eq. (6.9) presented in
Geometrical Optics, § 6.2.2, Nodal Points] is PN = P΄N΄ = 0.336/60 D ≈ 5.7 mm.

A two-
The human Crystalline
lens Cornea
eye: Lens
system

Figure 4‐13: The six cardinal points of the optical system of the human eye. The average distances for a
normal eye are: FP = N΄F΄ = 17 mm, P΄F΄ = 22.79 mm, PN = P΄N΄ = 5.73 mm. Principal planes H and H΄
intersect the optical axis at principal points P and P΄.

4.2.1 The Retinal Image

The optical system of the human eye forms an image of distant objects at the focal point F΄
inside the eye. (In ocular anatomy, point F΄ corresponds to the macula.) This image is the
retinal image. It is real because it is formed from ray convergence, and it is inverted because
the object is at a significantly greater distance from the front focal point, and the ‘lens’ of the
eye is converging (positive power). For the same reasons, magnification of the retinal image is
less than unity.

In the approximation presented in Figure 4-14, the lens is surrounded on both sides by
air (equal focal distances at either side). In the eye, one notable difference is that the refractive
index in image space to the right of the lens is different from the refractive index in object space
to the left of the lens. This is the reason that the corresponding focal lengths in the eye have
different magnitudes.

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Figure 4‐14: Simple rendering of a retinal image, which is real, inverted, and smaller than the object
(minified).

The precise calculation of the size of the retinal image (height h΄) involves the use of a
ray called the visual axis, which is defined in visual optics as the ray that passes through the
nodal points (these concepts are presented in Visual Optics, § 6.2.2).

If the object is located far away from the eye (practically, more than 6 m), then the retinal
image size in an emmetropic eye is approximately expressed as

Retinal Image Size (emmetropic eye): h΄ = ϑ [rad] × 17 [mm] (4.3)

Based on the known values of the refractive indices, the nodal point locations, and the
size of the eye, a ray that forms a visual angle of 1° (0.0175 rad) with the nodal point meets the
retina at a height of 0.3 mm. A simple rule to convert angles to distance at the retina (expressed
in millimeters; angles are measured from the nodal point) is

1 mm <-> 0.06 rad = 3.345° (4.4)

Example ☞ : A basketball player 2 m tall standing at 20 m (noted as −20 m in the vergence calculations)
subtends an apparent angle ϑ = 2/20 = 0.1 rad, and the retinal image has ‘height’ h΄ = −1.7 mm.

The obvious question now is: Given that the retinal image is inverted, why do we
perceive the basketball player as ‘naturally’ upright? The answer is that retinal image formation
does not conclude the visual sensation; it is a fundamental but intermediate step that is part of
the formation not the sensation of the retinal image (the initial step being the refraction of the
object rays by the optical system of the eye).

Visual sensation is a complicated process. The detection of light energy carried by the
image-forming light distribution, its conversion to electrical pulses that constitute the optical
signal, its processing and transmission to the visual cortex, and the final neural processing are
some of the basic blocks. Owing to this neural and cerebral processing, we perceive a naturally
erect world.

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Vision step # 1: Formation of the retinal image.

The optical system of the human eye is a combination of two positive

lenses that form a real image on the retina.

4.2.2 Schematic Eyes

The optical system of the human eye is quite complex. We use certain approximations in an
attempt to simplify and describe it mathematically. One of these approximations is that the
optical axis is approximated by the visual axis, the line that connects the macula to the nodal
points of the human eye.37

Schematic eyes are specific representations of the eye’s basic optical elements, such as
its refracting surfaces. They use specific dimensions, radii of curvature, refractive index values,
etc., with a good degree of anatomic fidelity. Data for these parameters are derived from a
large normative set of measurements in normal eyes.

The simplest eye model consists of just one refracting surface and is called the reduced
schematic eye. The reduced schematic eye is a first approximation, of course, since it
significantly simplifies the anatomy of the human eye. This simplified model is called Listing’s
reduced eye model after the German mathematician Johann Benedict Listing.

Figure 4‐15: Simplified model of the human eye with just one refracting surface.

The human eye’s single refracting surface corresponds to the optical interface formed by
the anterior cornea and the ambient air. The eye is defined by the joint exterior surface of two
spherical surfaces, which anatomically correspond to the cornea and the sclera with radii of
curvature of 5.6 mm and 9.22 mm, respectively. The inner lining forms the ‘screen,’ the location

37
Visual Optics § 2.4.3 Axes and Reference Points in the Human Eye.

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where the image is formed, which anatomically corresponds to the retina. A more detailed
human eye model was proposed by the Swedish ophthalmologist Allvar Gullstrand, the 1911
Nobel Prize recipient in Medicine. The Gullstrand model is still considered to be a very accurate
eye model.

Figure 4‐16: The exact Gullstrand schematic human eye.

Table 4‐1: Optical parameters of the exact Gullstrand schematic human eye.

thickness refractive index radii of curvature

7.7 mm (anterior)
cornea 0.5 mm 1.376
6.8 mm (posterior)
aqueous humor 3.1 mm 1.336 -
1.386 (cortex) 10.0 mm (anterior)
crystalline lens 3.6 mm
1.406 (nucleus) −6.0 mm (posterior)
vitreous body 17.2 mm 1.336 -

The interior volume of the eye is filled with a liquid (called aqueous humor) with a
refractive index of 4/3. The principal point P coincides with the cornea vertex, and the nodal
point N coincides with the center of curvature of the ‘refracting surface,’ located 5.6 mm to right
of the refractive surface. The front focal length is 16.6 mm, and the back focal length is 22.2 mm.
The entire system has an optical power of approximately 60 D.

In this model, the axial length is 24.4 mm and the total optical power is 60 D, with the
cornea contributing ~ 40 D and the crystalline lens contributing ~ 20 D.

This model acknowledges that the space between the cornea and the crystalline lens is
filled with aqueous humor. Variations of this model incorporate variability of the crystalline lens
refractive index, with its value increasing toward the nucleus of the lens in a model that
approaches a gradient-index (GRIN) lens.38 The location of the human pupil (which acts as the
aperture stop)39 coincides with the anterior surface of the crystalline lens.

38
Geometrical Optics § 2.2.3 Principle of Least Time.
39
Geometrical Optics § 7.1.1 The Aperture Stop.

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4.2.3 Refractive Errors

Emmetropia (εντός means within and μέτρο means rule) is the ideal refracting configuration of
the eye in which the image of a distant object is sharply formed on the retina. Thus, the image
is formed at location ≈ f vitreous ≈ 20 mm, according to the relationship in Eq. (4.2). In imaging
terms, the retina is the optical conjugate of optical infinity.

Figure 4‐17: In an emmetropic eye, the image from a distant object is sharply formed on the retina. The
sharp retinal image is inverted but is perceived as erect due to cerebral processing of the optical image.

In order to sharply focus the image on the retina, the optical power of the human eye is
‘in sync’ with its axial length. If, however, the optical power of the eye is not in harmony with the
axial length, then the retinal image is not formed on the retina. This is the rule, not the
exception. A sharp image is formed (focused) either before or after the retina; then, what is
projected onto the retina is a blurred version of the image. This is a refractive error.40

4.2.3.1 Myopia and Hyperopia

There are two main classes of refractive errors. One occurs when the optical power is more than
is needed for the specific axial length, e.g., 64 D. In this case, the image is formed in front of the
retina. This is called myopia (near sightedness).

Figure 4‐18: In a myopic eye, the image from a distant object is formed in front of the retina. Therefore, a
defocused image is projected onto the retina.

40
Visual Optics § 6.4 Myopia and Hyperopia.

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If the optical power is less than needed, e.g., 56 D, then the image is formed behind the
retina; this is called hyperopia (far sightedness). Myopia and hyperopia are spherical refractive
errors because they can be managed with contact lenses or spectacles of spherical prescription.

Figure 4‐19: In a hyperopic eye, the image from a distant object is formed behind the retina. Therefore, a
defocused version of the image is projected onto the retina.

Figure 4‐20: Retinal image placement in a myopic, emmetropic, and hyperopic human eye. The object is at
optical infinity. In the emmetropic eye (top), the retinal image is formed on the retina.

4.2.3.2 Astigmatism

Regardless of the steepness of the cornea (increased or decreased curvature), up to this point,
we have considered its shape to be part of an ideal sphere. In myopia, the radius of curvature
may be smaller (increased corneal curvature), while in hyperopia, the radius may be larger
(reduced curvature).

In a spherical cornea, any meridional cut produces a spherical arc with the same radius of
curvature, independent of the vertical or horizontal meridian. Given the association between
curvature and refractive power,41 this suggests that the refractive power is not dependent on the
meridian, i.e., the spatial orientation of the meridian imaging plane.

In astigmatism, this is no longer the case. The corneal refractive power is dependent on
the orientation of the meridian. The two extreme values are along the two principal meridians,

41
Geometrical Optics § 1.2.1 Curvature and Radius of Curvature.

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which are usually perpendicular. Along the steep meridian, which has the largest curvature,
there is the largest optical power and therefore the shortest focal length, while along the flat
meridian, which has the smallest curvature, there is the smallest optical power and the longest
focal length. The magnitude of astigmatism is the dioptric (optical power) difference between
these two extremes. If, for example, the vertical corneal meridian corresponds to +45 D and the
horizontal meridian corresponds to +43 D, the astigmatism magnitude is 2 D. Astigmatism is
referred to as a cylindrical error because it can be managed with cylinder lenses.

Figure 4‐21: Ray convergence in two meridians for myopic, emmetropic, and hyperopic eyes. In each case,
the two meridian focal points coincide.

Astigmatism is due to the dioptric difference along the two principal meridians. The
optical result is that an image cannot be formed on a point, but rather along two focal lines.
The word astigmatism derives from, α- for not, and -στίγμα: no stigmatic imaging is possible.

While in myopia / hyperopia rays parallel to any of the principal meridians converge to
the same point (before / after the retina), in astigmatism, these two focal ‘points’ do not coincide.
Rays along the steep meridian focus to point 1, while rays along the flat meridian focus to point
2 in Figure 4-22. Precisely because the rays along the flat meridian do not focus to point 1, at
this location they form line ❶, and at point 2, line ❷ is formed because rays along the steep
meridian are defocused. These two lines define the Sturm conoid. The separation between
these lines is the Sturm interval. The larger the astigmatism, the larger the Sturm interval.

Figure 4‐22: Different curvatures along two perpendicular meridians cause astigmatism.

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Within the Sturm interval the circle of least confusion is formed, which is associated with
the most acceptable image sharpness.

Figure 4‐23: (left) Ray convergence along the two principal meridians in an astigmatic eye. (right) The
Sturm conoid, Sturm interval, and the circle of least confusion.

Defocus Refractive Error Astigmatic Error

• Expresses the inability of the ocular
system to focus the image from a
distant object on the retina.
• The image is formed, but at a location
other than the retina.
• Results from larger or smaller ocular
refractive power in relation to the axial
length of the eye.
• Expresses the inability of the ocular
system to focus on the retina those
parts of the image that correspond to
different meridians.
• No clear image is formed.
• Results from an uneven distribution of
refractive power along the two principal
meridians.

4.2.4 Near and Distance Vision

In the imaging examples previously discussed, the object was at optical infinity. When the
object is near, there are some additional considerations. Here are two cases involving an optical
system with optical power F = + 60 D or focal length fair = + 16.6 mm.

For the first case, we consider an object far away (x = −10 m). Then the object vergence
is L = −0.1 D, and the image vergence is L΄ = L + F = –0.1 D + 60 D = 59.9 D. For the distant
object, therefore, the image is formed at x΄ = 1/(59.9 D) ≈ + 16.7 mm.

For the second case, the object is near (x = −0.25 m). Now, L = −4 D, and L΄ = L + F =
−4 D + 60 D = 56 D. For the near object, therefore, the image is formed at x΄ =
1/(56 D) ≈ + 18 mm. This means that the image will be formed behind the desired focal plane.
The near object, in other words, is not being focused sharply on the retina. Instead, a blurred
image is projected at this shorter-than-required distance of 16 mm.

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The above two examples are a good approximation of what occurs in the human eye (for
simplification, we did not account for the different value of the refractive index in the eye and
simply used n = 1.0 on both sides along the ‘lens’). For near objects, the sharp image in an
emmetropic eye would be formed after the retina at ≈ 2 mm.

To achieve sharp focusing in both cases, one option might be to move the focal plane by
instantly increasing the length of the human eye by an extra ≈ 2 mm—but this is not doable.

Figure 4‐24: Optical system of a lens that is similar to a very simplified human eye for (top) distance vision
and (bottom) near vision. In the second case, the image is shifted slightly to the right.

Another option is to increase the optical power of the system by ≈ 4 D. This is what
actually happens. To achieve this, the crystalline lens changes its curvature to increase its optical
power.36 This function is called accommodation.42 Loss or reduction of the accommodative
ability leads to presbyopia.

Accommodation helps the human eye bring the retinal image to focus over a fairly wide
range of distances. The proximal point is the near point, which is located at the near distance
for acceptable sharpness Δ.

The value of the near distance for acceptable sharpness depends on the accommodation
ability of the crystalline lens and the refractive state of the eye; an emmetropic young eye with
full accommodation may focus quite near, even a few centimeters away. For a normal
emmetropic eye, the minimum distance for acceptable sharpness is

Near Distance for Acceptable Sharpness: Δ = 25 cm (4.5)

42
Visual Optics § 7.1 The Nature of Accommodation.

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This value is only generally accepted and does not apply to all individuals.

The same lens might not form an image at the exact same location for
both a distant object and a near object.

In the human eye, if the optical power is such that a distant object
forms a sharp image exactly on the retina surface, then for a near
object, an increased optical power is required.

Any optical
system requires The normal eye
Near accommodates The aged eye
increased optical
has reduced
Vision: power to image by increasing its
optical power. accommodation.
a near object and
a far object.

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4.3 THE MAGNIFYING LENS

Our first reaction when attempting to view an object better is to bring the object closer to the
eyes. The closer the object the larger it appears because the visual angle increases, as does the
retinal image. How close to the eyes can we bring the object and still see it clearly?

The minimum distance that an object may be moved in order for the human eye to form
a sharp retinal image is the near point, which is at ≈ 25 cm. Here the apparent angle of object
observation ϑ25 is the largest possible. At this object distance, the retinal image is also the
largest possible clear image that can be observed with the naked eye.

Figure 4‐25: The apparent angle for an object is largest when the object is located at the near point.

We now insert a converging lens between the eye and the object; for object location x
and lens focal length f , f > |x|.

Both the schematic solution and the analytical imaging solution (object–image vergence
relationship) suggest that the virtual, erect image is formed at the location x΄ < 0 (therefore,
before, or to the left of, the lens) and that |x΄| > f > |x|. Magnification is larger than 1.0, which
means that the image is larger than the object. This virtual image may now be observed with
the eye.

Example ☞: The lens has a focal length f = 10 cm (F = 10 D), and the object location is x = –6 cm. The
image is…

We implement the lens-imaging relationship, 1/x + 1/f΄ = 1/x΄, and find that x΄ = −15 cm. The negative
sign indicates that both the object and—more importantly—the image are located before (to the left of)
the lens, ‘against’ the eye. The lateral magnification m is computed using the ratio of the image location x΄
to the object location x: m = x΄/x = (−15 cm)/(−6 cm) = +2.5. The image is 2.5× larger than the object and
is erect (+).

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Figure 4‐26: A virtual image from a converging lens. The object is located between the lens and the focal
point.

This image is now the new object observed by the human eye when looking at the lens
and may be located as close as the minimum distance of clear vision. With this lens functioning
as a magnifying lens, the observed object is the image formed by the magnifying lens, which is
larger than the actual object.

Figure 4‐27: Principle of operation of the magnifying lens.

When the image is formed at location x΄, the angular magnification of a magnifying lens
with focal length f is

΄
Angular Magnification, Magnifying Lens: MANG 


where α is the angle of the object observed with the naked eye, and α’ is the angle of the image
observed via the magnifying lens, which is located at x = −Δ = −25 cm. With a bit of geometry,
we find that

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Δ Δ
Angular Magnification, Magnifying Lens: M ANG   (4.6)
f x΄

The object may even be located on top of the lens focus; |x| = f. Then the image is
formed at infinity (x΄ = –∞), and magnification is M = Δ/f = ΔF, where F is the lens optical power.
When the object is located at the proper distance such that the image is formed at the near
point (x΄ = −Δ = −25 cm), magnification has its largest value and is called the maximum lens
magnifying power:

25 cm 25 cm 25 cm
Lens Magnifying Power: M ANG    1 (4.7)
f 25 cm f

This exact relationship (f expressed in centimeters) is used to calculate the magnifying

power of a lens. In many optical instruments (e.g., binoculars), MANG is denoted with ×. The
magnifying power is a unitless quantity (a simple number with no units). For a large magnifying
power, it is desirable for the focal length f of the lens to be a small value or, correspondingly, for
the optical power F to be very large.

Example ☞: For a magnifying lens with F = 10 D (f =10 cm), when the image is formed at the minimum
distance (25 cm), the magnification is 3.5×. When the image is formed at the optical infinity, the
magnification is 2.5×.

Examining the relationship in Eq. (4.7), one might propose using a lens with a very short
focal length ( f = 2 or 1 cm, for example) to achieve a very large magnification. The counter-
argument is that, with a simple converging lens and at large magnifications, optical aberrations43
are so strong that a clear image is no longer attainable. A useful magnification is between 3×
and 4× with a simple lens. There are, of course, specially designed magnifying lenses that are
able to achieve magnifications of 10×, 20×, and even 30×, and can combine achromatic
elements.

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Geometrical Optics Chapter 8. Optical Aberrations.

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 SIMPLE OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Figure 4‐28: Observation at magnifications (left to right) 1.5×, 2.5×, and 3.5×.

What we observe with the naked eye through a magnifying lens is the
image formed by a positive lens.

For maximum magnification, the object is located at a specific distance

that results in its image being formed at the near point of the eye.

For comfortable observation, the object is placed at the primary focal

point of the lens.

Magnifying
The magnifying power in a magnifying lens provides the maximum
Power angular magnification. It corresponds to an image formed at the near
point of the eye, which is 25 cm in the average human eye.

Magnifying power is denoted with × and has values > 1, up to 30.

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