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Installations for the liquefaction of natural gas in the vicinity of natural gas
deposits

Thesis · February 2012

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.2465.7283

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Wydział Mechaniczno-Energetyczny
kierunek studiów: energetyka
specjalność: energetyka komunalna

Praca dyplomowa
stopnia inżynierskiego

INSTALLATIONS FOR THE LIQUEFACTION OF

NATURAL GAS IN THE VICINITY OF NATURAL
GAS DEPOSITS

Łukasz Tomków

słowa kluczowe:
Natural gas,
liquefaction,
LNG

Promotor: ................................................. ....................... .......................

imię i nazwisko ocena podpis

Recenzent: ................................................. ....................... .......................

imię i nazwisko ocena podpis

Wrocław 2011
Contents
1 S TRESZCZENIE 3

2 I NTRODUCTION 6

3 OVERVIEW OF THE LNG PRODUCTION CHAIN 8

3.1 C ENTRIC MODEL OF LNG PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 D ISTRIBUTED LNG PRODUCTION MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 C OMPARISON OF SCHEMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 P RE - PROCESSING OF NATURAL GAS 12

4.1 I NLET RECEIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 P URIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 D EHYDRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 M ERCURY REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.5 H YDROCARBONS EXTRACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.6 N ITROGEN REJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.7 A PPLICABLE TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5 L IQUEFACTION OF NATURAL GAS 30

5.1 J OULE -T HOMSON CYCLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 E XPANDER CYCLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3 P RICO PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 S TIRLING COOLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.5 L IQUID NITROGEN COOLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6 LNG STORAGE SYSTEMS 37

7 E XAMPLE OF INSTALLATION FOR THE FIELD PRODUCTION OF LNG 38

7.1 C HARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.2 S CHEME OF THE PLANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.2.1 I NLET RECEIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.2.2 H YDROCARBONS REJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.2.3 G AS TURBINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7.2.4 NATURAL GAS MAIN FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7.2.5 N ITROGEN FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.2.6 E XTRACTED NATURAL GAS FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2.7 M AIN HEAT EXCHANGER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2.8 P LANT SIZE , OPERATION SCHEDULE AND ALTERNATIVE CONFIGURATIONS 48

8 C ONCLUSIONS 50

9 R EFERENCES 51

2
1 S TRESZCZENIE

Gaz ziemny to jeden z podstawowych surowców energetycznych. Oczekuje si˛e, że zapotrze-
bowanie nań b˛edzie rosło. Ponieważ znaczna cz˛eść gazu ziemnego używanego w Polsce pochodzi
ze źródeł w krajach niestabilnych politycznie, pożadany
˛ jest rozwój produkcji krajowej. Ni-
estety, wyst˛epuja˛ znaczne braki w polskiej infrastrukturze gazowej. Przesył produktu z niewiel-
kich źródeł położonych w trudnym terenie za pomoca˛ rurociagów ˛ jest drogi lub niemożliwy.
Alternatywa˛ jest skroplenie gazu i przewóz go do odbiorców z wykorzystaniem transportu
kołowego.
Taki sposób produkcji wymaga opracowania koncepcji małej instalacji przyzłożowego skra-
plania gazu ziemnego. Musi być zdolna do oczyszczenia wydobytego gazu w stopniu umożli-
wiajacym
˛ jego bezpieczne skroplenie. Instalacja taka, by jej eksploatacja była opłacalna, powinna
działać bez stałej obsługi. Automatyczne systemy obsługi powinny być zdolne do monitorowa-
nia stanu poszczególnych komponentów. Szczególnie ważne sa˛ informacje dotyczace ˛ ilości
produktu w zbiornikach oraz zużycia materiałów eksploatacyjnych.
Kolejnymi wymaganiami dla instalacji jest wytrzymałość i prostota. Niemożliwa b˛edzie
natychmiastowa reakcja na uszkodzenie, dlatego też najmniej podatne na zniszczenie technolo-
gie powinny być wykorzystane. Wszelkie procesy wykorzystujace ˛ niebezpieczne chemikalia
lub noszace˛ zagrożenie ogniowe powinny być realizowane poza instalacja.˛ Ponieważ instalacja
ma działać w warunkach ograniczonego terenu i być okresowo przemieszczana, musi charak-
teryzować si˛e niewielkimi rozmiarami.
Wykorzystanie takich instalacji wymaga zastosowania nowego modelu produkcji i dystry-
bucji gazu ziemnego. W chwili obecnej wi˛ekszość LNG produkowana jest w dużych instalac-
jach, gdzie możliwe jest zastosowanie skomplikowanych procesów oczyszczania i wielkoskalowego
skraplania. Rozproszona produkcja wymagać b˛edzie zastosowania innych procesów i innego
sposobu odbioru i transportu gazu. Przetwarzanie silnie zanieczyszczonego gazu b˛edzie bardzo
ograniczone. Istnieje jednak szereg zalet dla których stosowanie tego modelu jest ekonomicznie
uzasadnione. Degradacja środowiska naturalnego w pobliżu małej instalacji jest znacznie mniejsze,
ze wzgl˛edu na krótszy okres działania takiej instalacji w jednym miejscu i mniejsze wymagania
dotyczace˛ linii transportowej. Wykorzystanie wielu małych instalacji pozwala na bardziej op-
tymalna˛ alokacj˛e siły roboczej. Różne zadania moga˛ być jednocześnie wykonywane w różnych
miejscach, zamiast sekwencyjnego nast˛epowania po sobie jak ma to miejsce w przypadku mod-
elu z centralna˛ instalacja.˛
Produkt działania instalacji musi spełniać wymagania zdefiniowane w normach dotyczacych ˛
skroplonego gazu ziemnego. Definiuja˛ one LNG jako skroplona˛ mieszanin˛e w˛eglowodorów
i innych składników zawierajac ˛ a˛ nie mniej niż 85% metanu i nie wi˛ecej niż 5% azotu. By
uzyskać mieszanin˛e o takich parametrach, możliwa˛ do skroplenia konieczne jest przeprowadze-
nie szeregu procesów. Należy zapobiec korozji i tworzeniu si˛e zamarzajacych˛ zatorów. Również
charakterystyki spalania produktu musza˛ być zgodne z wymaganiami odbiorców.
W ramach przygotowania produktu do skroplenia zidentyfikowane zostały procesy wst˛ep-
nego oczyszczania, oczyszczania z gazów kwaśnych, separacji w˛eglowodorów, osuszania, usuwa-
nia rt˛eci i usuwania azotu oraz innych składników gazowych. Wst˛epne oczyszczenie polega na
usuni˛eciu fazy ciekłej z wydobywanej mieszaniny. Na faz˛e ciekła˛ składa si˛e zwykle woda
zmieszana z ci˛eższymi w˛eglowodorami. W celu jej usuni˛ecia wykorzystywane sa˛ separatory
fazowe. Najbardziej popularnym tego typu urzadzeń ˛ jest separator cylindryczny. Możliwe jest
też zastosowanie filtrów, sa˛ one jednak bardzo wrażliwe na obecność zanieczyszczeń stałych.
W celu usuni˛ecia małych kropel porywanych przez gaz wykorzystywane sa˛ odemglacze.
Oczyszczenie produktu z gazów kwaśnych konieczne jest by uniknać ˛ korozji. Istnieja˛ liczne

3
metody usuwania gazów kwaśnych. Do podstawowych należa˛ metody absorpcyjne i adsor-
pcyjne. Najcz˛eściej stosowane sa˛ metody chemicznej absorpcji z wykorzystaniem etyloamin.
Niestety instalacje tego typu sa˛ skomplikowane i wymagaja˛ dużych nakładów energii do działa-
nia. Procesy absorpcji fizycznej nie zapewniaja˛ wymaganego poziomu oczyszczenia. Procesy
adsorpcji sa˛ mniej energochłonne, zaś wykorzystanie sit molekularnych pozwala oczyścić gaz
w wystarczajacym ˛ stopniu. Konieczna jest jednak ich okresowa regeneracja. Zwykle odbywa
si˛e to z wykorzystaniem upuszczonej cz˛eści przetwarzanego gazu ziemnego. Niestety, wymaga
to dodatkowej instalacji oczyszczania. W zwiazku ˛ z tym konieczne jest wprowadzenie gazu
oczyszczajacego,
˛ badź
˛ całkowita rezygnacja z przetwarzania gazu zawierajacego
˛ gazy kwaśne.
Osuszanie ma na celu uzyskanie punktu rosy niższego niż temperatury wyst˛epujace ˛ w insta-
lacji. Normalnie w celu uzyskania suchości wystarczajacej ˛ dla transportu rurociagami
˛ wyko-
rzystywane sa˛ metody kondensacji. Zależnie od wykorzystywanego chłodziwa uzyskiwalne
sa˛ wartości od 20ºC do -30ºC. Sa˛ to wartości zbyt wysokie dla kriogenicznej cz˛eści instalacji.
Metody absorpcyjne pozwalaja˛ na uzyskanie -25ºC. Dodatkowo najcz˛eściej wykorzystywany
jest w nich trujacy˛ glikol. Adsorpcja pozwala na uzyskanie najniższego st˛eżenia pary wodnej w
mieszaninie. Jednakże, podobnie jak w przypadku oczyszczania z gazów kwaśnych konieczna
jest regeneracja złóż.
Konieczne jest niemal całkowite usuni˛ecie rt˛eci. Jej obecność prowadzi do zniszczeń w
aluminiowych wymiennikach ciepła poprzez tworzenie si˛e amalgamatów. W celu oczyszczenia
strumienia gazu wykorzystywane sa˛ metody chemiczne. Tradycyjnie wykorzystywane sa˛ metody
organiczne z wykorzystaniem w˛egla aktywnego. Obecnie rozwijane sa˛ metody nieorganicznego
usuwania rt˛eci, które maja˛ być skuteczniejsze i tańsze.
Wi˛ekszość procesów usuwania ci˛eższych w˛eglowodorów realizowana jest w niskich tem-
peraturach. Wykorzystywane sa˛ instalacje kondensacyjne, absorpcyjne i rektyfikacyjne. W
przypadku wi˛ekszości wykorzystywane jest zewn˛etrzne źródło chłodzenia i skomplikowane
separatory. W procesach tych możliwe jest wspólne usuwanie azotu. Bardzo obiecujac ˛ a˛ tech-
nologia˛ jest separator naddźwi˛ekowy Twister®. To proste, niezawierajace ˛ ruchomych cz˛eści
urzadzenie
˛ wykorzystuje dysz˛e de Lavala by uzyskać przepływ naddźwi˛ekowy. Gaz jest za-
wirowywany, a powstałe w wyniku spadku temperatury i ciśnienia kondensaty sa˛ usuwane za
pomoca˛ separatora cyklonowego.
Usuwanie azotu konieczne jest w przypadku przetwarzania gazu ziemnego z jego wysoka˛
zawartościa.˛ Najcz˛eściej realizowane jest za pomoca˛ destylacji kriogenicznej. Możliwe jest
jednak zastosowanie adsorpcji i membran. Ze wzgl˛edu na fakt, że planowane jest przetwarzanie
gazu wysokometanowego, wykorzystanie metod usuwania azotu nie jest konieczne. Zawartość
w tego typu gazach azotu jest wystarczajaco ˛ niska by całkowicie rozpuścił si˛e w skroplonym
metanie.
Dobór procesu skraplania zależny jest głównie od ilości gazu do skroplenia. W dużych in-
stalacjach najcz˛eściej wykorzystywane sa˛ procesy kaskadowe, z których zwykle stosuje si˛e
klasyczna˛ kaskad˛e i kaskad˛e ze zmieszanymi składnikami (DMR lub MFC). W przypadku
małych instalacji konieczne jest wykorzystanie prostszych procesów. Wytypowane zostały pro-
cesy z zaworem Joule’a-Thomsona, izentropicznej ekspansji, proces Prico, z wykorzystaniem
chłodziarek Stirlinga i chłodzenie za pomoca˛ ciekłego azotu. Dwa ostatnie sa˛ najbardziej
obiecujace.
˛ Niestety, wykorzystanie procesu z chłodziarkami Stirlinga wymaga dostarczenia
dużej ilości energii z zewnatrz.
˛ W przypadku ciekłego azotu pojawia si˛e dodatkowa zaleta jaka˛
jest możliwość wykorzystania go jako gazu do regeneracji sit molekularnych.
Skroplony gaz należy przechować. Instalacja musi być w stanie współpracować ze zbiornikami,
w których przechowywany b˛edzie skroplony gaz i gdzie czekać b˛edzie na transport do odbior-
ców. Zbiorniki ciśnieniowe sa˛ najlepszym wyborem dla takiej instalacji. Możliwy jest w nich

4
wysoki stopień przechłodzenia i charakteryzuja˛ si˛e niewielkimi rozmiarami. Ważna jest możli-
wość szybkiego opróżnienia takiego zbiornika.
Stworzony został projekt koncepcyjny małej instalacji skraplania gazu ziemnego z wyko-
rzystaniem ciekłego azotu. Schemat tej instalacji został przedstawiony w załaczniku
˛ 1. Przewidy-
wana wydajność instalacji to około 2 miliony metrów sześciennych rocznie. Gaz wydobywany
ze złoża przepływa przez zawory bezpieczeństwa, które sa˛ zamykane w przypadku zagroże-
nia uszkodzeniem instalacji. Wybranym typem separatora jest separator cylindryczny pionowy
współpracujacy˛ z odemglaczem. Przetwarzany gaz przepływa nast˛epnie do Twistera®, gdzie
nast˛epuje usuni˛ecie w˛eglowodorów.
Usuni˛ete w˛eglowodory sa˛ przenoszone do układu przechowywania i turbiny gazowej. Układ
przechowywania wykorzystywany jest by zapewnić stały dopływ odpowiedniej ilości paliwa do
turbiny. Model turbiny został wykonany w programie Dynamic Network Analysis. Z symulacji
wynika, że spalajac˛ ci˛eżkie w˛eglowodory dostarczałaby około 8,5 kWe z efektywnościa˛ 30%.
Gorace˛ gazy wylotowe sa˛ dalej wykorzystywane w instalacji jako źródło mocy cieplnej.
Pozbawiony w˛eglowodorów gaz ziemny jest wst˛epnie schładzany w wymienniku ciepła
azotem z głównego wymiennika. Schłodzony gaz jest oczyszczany za pomoca˛ uprzednio przy-
gotowanych sit molekularnych. Cz˛eść gazu (około 3%) jest upuszczana by odpowiednio dos-
tosować temperatur˛e złoża do regeneracji badź
˛ pracy. Reszta przepływa do głównego wymien-
nika ciepła, gdzie jest skraplana i schładzana. Obliczono rozkład temperatury w wymienniku
i wielkość przepływu ciepła w jego poszczególnych cz˛eściach. Skroplony gaz jest nast˛epnie
rozpr˛eżany do ciśnienia pracy zbiornika i przechowywany do czasu odbioru.
Przepływ azotu rozpoczyna si˛e ze zbiornika, skad ˛ przepływa przez sieć wymmieników
ciepła. W głównym wymmieniku zostaje całkowicie odparowany, nast˛epnie zostaje podgrzany
przez metan z Twistera®. W nast˛epnym wymienniku nast˛epuje podgrzanie do temperatury re-
generacji sit molekularnych. W ostatnim wymienniku z sieci, jeśli konieczne jest podgrzanie
złoża, oddaje cz˛eść ciepła upuszczonemu gazowi. Nast˛epnie przepływa przez regenerowane
sito molekularne skad ˛ zabiera zanieczyszczenia zgromadzone tam w trakcie pracy.
W pracy zostało pokazane, że możliwe jest stworzenie małej instalacji skraplania gazu
ziemnego. Wszystkie cele postawione przed instalacja˛ zostały zrealizowane. Jest w stanie dzi-
ałać autonomicznie, z obsługa˛ ograniczona˛ do cotygodniowego napełniania zbiorniku ciekłego
azotu i odbioru skroplonego gazu ziemnego. Zajmuje niewielka˛ powierzchni˛e i charakteryzuje
si˛e wykorzystaniem najprostszych możliwych technologii. Jest energetycznie niezależna, cała
energia elektryczna i cieplna produkowana jest na miejscu. Zostało to uzyskane poprzez wyko-
rzystanie azotu zarówno jako chłodziwa, jak i gazu oczyszczajacego ˛ dla sit molekularnych.
Konieczne jest jednakże przeprowadzenie pełnej analizy ekonomicznej oraz przygotowanie in-
frastruktury odbierajacej
˛ gaz.

5
2 I NTRODUCTION

Along with oil and coal natural gas is one of the pillars of the global energy system. Out of
these three this fuel is the cleanest and the most susceptible to efficient use. Polish gas market
is relatively undeveloped (12,8% of market penetration compared with 21% European Union’s
average [1]). General energy consumption is anticipated to grow, as well as natural gas share
in energy mix. Therefore it might be expected that the demand for natural gas in Poland will
increase, even despite European climatic regulations limiting usage of fossil fuels. Due to the
fact that most of the gas derives from potentially instable politically countries it is desired to
develop domestic production.
There is some significant rationale for producing and using LNG instead of standard pipeline
gas. Both producers and customers may benefit from this. Most basic advantage is achievement
of greater energy densities when liquefying gas. LNG is easier to far-reaching transport, espe-
cially overseas. This does not require to build long and expensive pipelines, which permanently
bound two markets together. Most of LNG is transported using gas tankers. Trucking is also
applied, especially when considering distributed production. Extraction and processing may
take place far from output market, which is mostly the case. On consumer side the utilisation
of LNG infrastracture allows continuous supply of gas by diversification of import directions.
This increases energy safety of country and allows greater flexibility in choice of suppliers.
One of the barriers for the expansion of gas production in Poland is inadequate infrastructure
[2]. This is the case especially for small, isolated deposits. Construction of pipelines connecting
them with larger installations might be unprofitable or even impossible. Small size of deposit
makes period of extraction short. Thus, as little as possible permanent or one time use devices
should be used. Spreading of production by the application of small, mobile liquefied natural
gas installations might be a solution to this problem. Such installation should be capable to
process raw gas, liquefy it and store the product until it will be transported to customer.
The unit should operate under maintenance limited to the periodical exchange of consum-
ables and the collection of product. This solution greatly reduces operational costs. Then super-
vision would take place in a remote control center. Therefore automatic control systems will be
required. They will need to be able to monitor the state of individual components. Particularly
important is information about the amount of product in the tank and the level of consumables
usage. The basic adjustment of operational parameters depending on the amount and quality of
gas coming from well will be routine task for such system. Turning installation off in case of
malfunction should also be done by the control system.
Fastness of the installation is crucial. It is supposed to operate under harsh conditions, with-
out permanent crew. Therefore it needs to be able to withstand weather conditions met on site.
Protection against malevolent animal and human interference should be implemented as well.
All delicate pieces of equipment should be installed within safe containment. Also dangers de-
rived from flammable and explosive nature of processed materials should be considered during
unit design. If possible complex processes involving dangerous chemicals should be executed
in central plant. Methods which pose the risk of the contamination of environment or fire should
be dropped.
Compact size is another desired feature. Small installations are able to be set up even when
there is a little of suitable terrain. Impact on the environment is reduced. This allows to easily
relocate the unit when reservoir is depleted. This goal might be achieved by moving all the
processes uncommitted directly in production of LNG to the other locations. Similar remark
goes to the disposal of byproducts. Processing of those should take place out of installation, or
should even be completely ignored. During the choice of technology priority should be given

6
to the ones which do not require large areas.
Need for simplicity inevitably results from aforementioned requirements. The usage of un-
complicated technologies should be promoted, as they are often the most durable and compact.
Small amount of moving parts makes maintenance easier and allows to execute it less often.
Generally they are also the cheaper ones. The most of them requires the periodical exchange
of consumables, however. Matter of choice of technologies will be described in detail in the
following sections.
The product should meet standards for LNG defined by Polish and European norms. [3]
defines this as the liquid mixture of hydrocarbons containing no less than 75% of methane and
no more than 5% of nitrogen . Some tracable components naturally occuring in gas are also
allowed, however no exact figures are given. For the purpose of this paper values for pipeline
quality gas will be used, adjusted to the specific needs of cryogenic equipment. These are given
in [4]. Limits for gas at the temperature of 273.15 K and the pressure of 101.3125 kPa have
been gathered in table 1.

Table 1: Limits of pipeline gas components according to [4]

Component Unit Amount
Hydrogen sulfide mg/m3 7,0
Oxygen % (mol/mol) 0,2
Carbon dioxide % (mol/mol) 3,0
Mercury µg/m 3 30,0

Figure 1: General scheme of processes and the flow of materials

Achieving these levels of components requires multistage on-site processing. Pre-liquefaction

processing is divided into purification and separation [5]. The aim of purification is to remove
any components of raw gas that would compromise further processing, like dust, mercury, sour
gases and water. In latter process valuable components are being taken out. Those usually
include petrochemical fuels (mostly gasoline) and industrial gases (e.g. helium and nitrogen).
The product of mentioned processes is pipeline quality gas. However, in order to produce liquid
natural gas it must be refined to higher purity level to allow liquefaction without neither freezing
nor damage to heat exchanger. After this process the refined gas is routed to a liquefier and, as
liquid, stored until taken to customer. The general scheme of processes and materials involved
in operation of LNG installation is shown in figure 1.

7
3 OVERVIEW OF THE LNG PRODUCTION CHAIN

This section contains the description of the current model of LNG production and a proposed
alternative to this, which is a distributed scheme. It is described according to some critieria,
like environmental impact, requirements for labour, possible usage and output characteristics.
Diagrams depicting each organisation are shown, as well as output graphs. The advantages and
disadvantages of each solution are described. Finally the discussion is provided where both
models are compared.

3.1 C ENTRIC MODEL OF LNG PRODUCTION

Currently most of the LNG is being produced according to the scheme shown in figure 2. Natu-
ral gas is extracted in the wells and preprocessed on the field. Then it is transported to a central
facility, where most of the processing takes place. Large pipelines networks are being built to
transport the gas to processing. There might be (and often are) many wells on one field and
many fields may be served by one facility. After removal of undesired components it is lique-
fied at the same place and stored in large tanks. Finally it is shipped to customers. If central
installation is located further in a landmass trains or trucks are used.

Figure 2: General scheme of LNG production

Field processing is limited only to the parameters that allow safe pipeline transport of the
product to central facility. Gas may be extracted as associated, that is mixed with oil, and
non-associated, which means extracted in predominantly gaseous form. Non-associated gas
processing will be main concern of this thesis. Firstly sludge catcher stops large bites of liquid
before entering plant. Some liquids, like heavier hydrocarbons or water, still might need to be
removed, which is being done in scrubber. Nextly it is compressed in so called booster station.
Finally hydrate formation inhibitors and anticorrosives are added and the gas is piped to the
central facility.
There the main gas treatment takes place. Acid gases are the first to be taken out. These are
carbon dioxide and sulfur compounds. Sulfides are processed in order to obtain useful materials,
like elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid. This allows to avoid letting those harmful components out
to environment. On the other hand carbon dioxide is mostly vented out to atmosphere. Then

8
gas is dried in process known as dehydration. Nextly heavier hydrocarbons are separated from
dry gas. They are being further processed along with liquids produced during field processes.
Gasoline is the most significant product of this processing. In the next stage of gas separation
nitrogen and helium are being taken out.
Nitrogen is mostly released to atmosphere. Since this is main component of air and is not
toxic this is environmentally neutral. On the other hand pure helium is valuable product and
may be easily obtained during gas liquefaction, which is the final step in LNG production.
Liquefaction process is the most energy-consuming and important stage of whole process. Its
requirements define type of processing which is applied. Liquefied gas is stored in the tanks,
where it waits until taken to customers. Specific loading equipment is applied to minimise
danger of fire and leakage and to ensure efficient loading of transport vessels. Similar devices
are found at receiving points, where LNG is regasified and let into the network.
In large central installation it is possible to use large and complex purifying devices. There-
fore almost any type of raw gas may be processed there. Capital and operation costs of these
devices are very high. They require constant maintenance realised by numerous and highly
qualified personel. Due to their size they often become major employer of gas production area.
Such installation causes significant environmental impact, when large amounts of by-products
are being emitted in one location. Need for construction of extensive pipeline networks con-
tributes as well to endangering local natural habitats. Environmental regulations greatly limit
development of industrial gas processing and forces to find new solutions.
Very large outputs may be achieved when applying this organisation of production. One
large plant may process gas extracted from many well simultanueusly. This however limits the
period of production and causes large peaks of production followed by a rapid decrease. Figure
3 depicts the simplified example of size of production of large LNG processing installation
during its life period. In reality some fluctuations in production would appear leading to actual
peaks of production. Actual plants operate on maximum level for up to 30 years. First quarter
of operation is the starting stage, when fields are prepared and extraction begins. During final
quarter output decreases due to depletion of fields.

Figure 3: Size of output during the period of production for large installation

3.2 D ISTRIBUTED LNG PRODUCTION MODEL

Sometimes though it is unprofitable or impossible to build one large facility and network of
pipes. This is especially the case when considering small reservoirs, which development is
expected to be short. Then, construction of temporary, relocatable facilities might be a solution.
They do not require pipe networks and their location may be easily changed. Unfortunately their
ability to process heavily contaminated gas is greatly limited and LNG requirements for purity

9
of product are particularly strict. Nevertheless, construction of such plants would change the gas
production scheme. Concept of new scheme is shown in figure 4. Introduction of this concept
is coherent with the current trend of distributed energy production. This assumes production
of energy in small units spread throughout considered region, instead of building large, central
plants.

Figure 4: Distributed LNG production concept

The other advantage of this concept is the mobility of the installation, on the contrary to
large ones that are currently in use. As it can be seen on the diagram just few of the installations
may serve large amount of fields. They can be moved when the field is depleted to another one.
This flattens production curve and allows longer total extraction period. This flexibility might
be also considered safety precaution against incorect expectations of field’s productivity. In
case if actual amount of gas in the filed is lower than estimated the installation might be easily
transported.
Due to the fact that small installations operate for shorter time in one place it is easier to
maintain sustainable production. Degradation of enviroment is smaller and less intensive and
therefore easier to be removed. Lack of long and intensively used transport lines allows not
to divide local natural habitats into separate sectors. The only requirement for transport is a
road on which truck would go. Such roads are not barrier for animals and, since product is
transported relatively rarely, does not pose a danger to them. Plant is relatively small and leaves
minor environmental trace. Because of this it can be placed relatively close to the cities without
posing a threat to their citizens. Therefore product may be delivered directly to the customers,
thus further shortening transportation lines.
Distributed organisation of gas production allows better allocation of skilled labour. Pro-
cessing, drilling and survey teams may work simultaneously on different fields, unlike in stan-
dard case when each stage is performed sequentially. In the figure 4 few statuses of fields may
be noticed. Field labelled as 1 represents recent discovery, where no operations are taking place
yet. Number 2 is a field already prepared for extraction. Wells are present and installation is
being moved from depleted reservoir 3. Field 4 represents normal operation of plant, when gas
is extracted, processed and liquefied. LNG is stored and then transported to customer by truck.
Finally there is reservoir 5, which is depleted and may be adopted as underground natural gas
storage or recultivated. Such small installations may mostly operate unstaffed, which means

10
further reduction of manpower costs. One remote control center may supervise many plants.
Distributed production, however, limits total output of fields. Less gas is being extracted
at once and peak production is lower than in normal case. On the other hand it ensures longer
period of production and more stable rate. It is shown in figure 5. Fast startup of plant and its
mobility allows production to be kept on stable level during almost whole production time. Pro-
duction from one field is expected to last around 2-5 years, then the installation would be moved
to another place. Total time of operation of plant depends on its maintenance and economical
factors. Well kept installation may operate even as long as large plants.

Figure 5: Size of output during the period of production for small installation

3.3 C OMPARISON OF SCHEMES

Each type of organisation is applicable in other case. When considering large fields with the
product mostly exported overseas the best solution would be construction of large installation.
Shipping capability of LNG is especially exploited by producers from Middle East like Qatar.
Tankers are filled in large gasports with great amounts of LNG coming from huge plants sup-
plied by gas, which comes mostly from offshore platforms. It would be irrational to use small
installations in this case due to large demand and tremendous amount of gas to be extracted and
processed. It is also better to apply complex plants when gas in reservoir is contaminated or
associated with oil. In small installations it is impossible to remove all the impurities if they are
present to large extent. Processing of associated liquids is limited as well. Since these liquids
are worthy it is economical to process them instead of dispose off. Finally only in large plants
it is possible to recover helium due to large complexity and energy use of devices capable of
doing this.
On the other hand, minor fields which output supplies local market are best suited for ap-
plication of distributed small installations. Small, onshore fields filled with good quality gas
are perfect for setting up such plant. Limitations in extracted gas quality are the main concern
there. They might located in regions normally out of reach for pipelines and large installations.
These are especially hilly and mountainous regions as well as small, isolated islands. It should
be noted that many of such regions are also valuable because of scenic beauty. This would be
lost forever if large installations were build. Stable and long production guarantees reliable sup-
ply of LNG for customers. They may be coupled with relatively small markets with predictable
demand, like towns, agricultural plants or minor industrial clusters.

11
4 P RE - PROCESSING OF NATURAL GAS

The treatment of gas required prior to liquefaction has been described. Every method is char-
acterised by the certain size of flow in which its operation is optimal. Compositions of inlet
and outlet gas affect choice of technology as well. Therefore both schemes of production will
utilise different devices. Contaminants which have to be removed have been listed. Mostly used
removal techniques and their range of application have been described.

4.1 I NLET RECEIVING

Gas coming from a well might contain some components in liquid phase. These are mostly
heavy hydrocarbons and condensed water. Gases and liquids entering the plant firstly pass
emergency shutdown valves. Purpose of those is to isolate the plant in case of emergency or
for the maintenance. After that, in inlet receiving, liquid phases are being removed. Presence
of liquids might stop operation of whole plant by flooding equipment. It is crucial to remove
them before liquefaction and any process involving low temperature in order to avoid freezing.
Possible hydrate formation is another rationale. During this process most of the dust is removed
as well. Separation takes place in separators, known also as scrubbers. Mainly used types
are gravitational, inertial, centrifugal and filters. Combinations are also applicable. In case
of highly pressurized product coming from a well separators may be partitioned into different
pressure sectors. This is done in order to avoid dangerous flash vaporization.
Gravitational scrubbers are the most commonly used. They are divided into groups due to
the shape. These are cylindrical and spherical. The most often used gravitational separators are
cylindrical separators, therefore they will be compared. Cylindrical separators may be vertical
or horizontal. Horizontal scrubbers allow processing of large flows of gas due to large exchange
area. Cylinder diameter might be relatively small. The other advantage is simple montage and
maintenance. Low amount of drops is stripped by flow. However, they occupy large space.
They are vulnerable to gathering of solids and level of liquid is hard to control. Considering the
fact that installation should be small and remotely operated these are important disadvantages.
Vertical separators occupy small area and are easy to control. It is not affected by gathering
of solids and heavier liquids for prolonged periods. Disadvantages are complicated montage,
small exchange area and relatively large cylinder diameter. Finally, re-entrainment of small
drops is a drawback.
Principle of operation of gravitational separator will be explained using an example of a
vertical separator General scheme of such separator can be found in figure 6. There are four
stages in this process. These are: primary separation (A in figure 6), gas gravity separation (B),
mist extraction (C) and liquid gravity separation (D). Most of the liquid is removed in primary
separation. In this phase large drops are being stopped by wall opposite to inlet and then simply
stream down. Nextly finer drops are being removed. It is possible when gas velocities are low
enough to cause only small turbulences. Droplets settle on the wall and the difference in density
causes liquid to gather at the bottom of the vessel and gas to go upwards.
Liquid is removed from container, while gas goes to mist extraction step, known also as
coalescing. This is mostly realized by inertial separator. In this part of process small droplets
are collected and form larger ones, which eventually fall down. Complexity of demister depends
on size of drops, their viscosity and velocity of flowing gas. Turbulences, as well as ability to
form larger drops are the most important factors. Main types of inertial separators are knit mesh
pads, wire mesh pads and vane packs. Each type is applicable for different charactersitics of
flow. Knit mesh performs best when velocities of gas and size of droplets are small (respectively

12
 Figure 6: Vertical separator scheme

around 1m/s and 10µm), wire mesh is used for medium range (c.a. 2m/s and 20-100µm) and
vane pack for large range (3-10m/s and 100-800 µm). For all types of inertial separation major
issue is cleaning of device. Small size is an advantage of all of them.
Principle of centrifugal separator is the difference in centrifugal forces which are experi-
enced by droplets when the move circularly. In such separator vortex is produced by tangential
injection and certain shape of inner walls. Inside separator liquid and solid particles are sub-
ject to greater friction, lose their velocity and fall down to a collection chamber. Centrifugal
separators are effective and have large processing capacity. The other advantage is small size.
However, they are complex and hard to maintain. Formation of vortex requires specific shaping.
Cleaning of the tracks is hard, as well as montage. During prolonged usage those separators
may be vulnerable to wear due to sharp particles, and replacement of worn parts is much more
expensive than in case of cylindrical separator.
The other type of separating devices are filters. They are extremaly effective when it comes
to separation of very small droplets (around 0,01µm). However, they may be easily stroked
by particles of dust. Such event completely compromises operation. The other disadvantage
is need for often exchange of cartridges. Since installation should operate unstaffed and in
remote location, this is the major weakness of this solution. Modern filters are able to operate
continuously when processing liquids [7]. Nevertheless, in considered product dust particles
are expected to appear. Therefore other types of separators should be used.
Combination of many types of separators allows to use advantages of many types of separa-
tors. They are effective for wide range of flows and drops size. Effects of synergy appear, when
disadvantages of one type of separator are covered by the other. However, such combinations
are complex and may pose problems when it comes to mount and maintain them. They perform
best when simple constructions are combined. There is a risk of large spaces occupied by com-
bined separator, if technologies requiring large devices are chosen. They might be expensive,
especially when individually suited for installation.
Separated product may be mixed with liquids from further treatment, reinjected to reservoir
or disposed off. First solution is applied if it is rich in valuable components, like gasoline and

13
heavy hydrocarbons. Further processing is performed in order to obtain high quality product
which may be sold to customer. Reinjection is the case when gas extraction is to be enhanced.
Both mentioned solutions are often inapplicable in case of small installations. Amount of sep-
arated product is too low to make its processing profitable. Usage of sophisticated enhancment
techniques is avoided when small reservoirs are considered. It leaves disposal as the only viable
option. If separated liquid contains minor amounts of harmful substances it may be disposed
directly to environment. In other case it should be stored and then safely recycled in other
location.
Separated gas is often compressed. Pressure drives gas through whole installation and might
be utilised to cool down product by expansion. Pressure ratio and therefore compressor power
depends on further usage of gas and specific requirements of the other equipment pieces in the
plant. Because of gas heating up during compression an air cooler is applied. Some liquids may
condense due to higher pressure and they should be removed. Need for compression depends
also on the pressure of the gas coming from well. It might be very limited when the gas is highly
pressurised. In case of considered installation it is desired to compress gas as little as possible
beacuse of high capital cost of compressors and their energy-consuming operation. If pressure
in reservoir is high enough, there is no need for compression. In case of production lines with
long piping, corrosion and hydrate formation inhibitors may be added in order to protect further
parts of the plant. However, they need to be collected at one of the consecutive steps.

4.2 P URIFICATION

Before liquefaction gas needs to be purified. Firstly acid gases are removed. These are hydrogen
sulfide (H2 S) and other sulfur compounds along with carbon dioxide (CO2 ). H2 S is toxic. In
concentrations higher than 1000 ppmv it causes death within minutes, while its threshold limit
value is 10 ppmv. In dangerous concentrations it kills sensor cells almost instantly, therefore it
is odourless. In the presence of water it forms corrosive acid, which is a threat to the equipment
and piping. High concentrations often results in formation of carbon disulfide, mercaptans
(RSH) and sulfides (RSR). It might also cause precipitation of elemental sulfur. Natural gas is
considered sour when hydrogen sulfide content exceeds 5,7mg/Nm3 [6].There are few methods
of detection of those compounds, mostly based on the observation of the reactions with copper
and other materials.
CO2 is also toxic, poisoning effects are already observable when concentration is around
5%, in 30% it kills instantly. Occurence of such high levels due to gas leakage is very improb-
able though. There are also other problems associated with carbon dioxide. Firstly, similarly
to hydrogen sulfide, it causes formation of acid. It might freeze during operation in low tem-
peratures and stroke the installation. Its freezing temperature is -78ºC, well above temperatures
occuring in the further processes. Therefore it needs to be removed almost completely. Finally,
it lowers the heating value of gas since it is noncombustible.
Due to chemical similarity acid gases are often removed in one process. Main methods are
solvent absorption (known also as wet removal), solid adsorption (dry removal), membranes, di-
rect conversion and cryogenic fractionation. The most important ones are the first two. Usage of
the latter ones is limited and will not be considered. Choice of method is affected by many fac-
tors. Firstly, concentration and type of impurities need to be considered. Different temperature
and pressure levels promote other solutions - physical solvents perform best when partial pres-
sure of acid gases is high, while low promotes usage of amines. Specification of outlet gas and
byproducts is another important factor. Nextly amount of gas needs to be considered, as well as
economical issues. Environmental requirements should be met too. For small installations size,

14
weight and complexity are becoming another important factors. [5] provides extensive table
containing specifications of most of the process. Specification level of H2 S is defined there as
6mg/m3 , slightly less than in norm. The most important informations are presented in table 2.

Table 2: CO2 and H2 S removal processes

Process Capabality of removing Obtainable Degradation
H2 S to desired level CO2 level (degrading species)
Monoethanol- Yes 100 ppmv Yes (acid gases,
amine (MEA) sulfides)
Diethanol Yes 50 ppmv Some (CO2 ,
amine (DEA) sulfides, mercaptans)
Triethanol No Partial pressure Slight (sulfides,
amine (TEA) of 3 kPa mercaptans)
Methyldiethanol Yes Only bulk No
amine (MDEA)
Diglycol Yes 100 ppmv Yes (COS,CO2 ,
amine (DGA) CS2 )
Diisopropanol Yes Not applicable No
amine (DIPA)
Sulfinol Yes 50 ppmv Some (CO2 ,CS2 )
Hot potassium With special features Not reported Not reported
carbonate
Stretford Yes Little amounts Yes (CO2 )
Selexol® Yes Slipped or absorbed No
Rectisol® Yes 1 ppmv Not reported
Molecular sieves Yes Meets cryogenic req. Not applicable
Membranes No Feed dependent Not applicable

There are two types of absorption. These are chemical and physical absorption. Advan-
tage of using chemical solvents is ability to reduce sour gas content to ppm levels and their
relative insensivity to their partial pressure. Major disadvantage is high energy usage. Since
these are mostly water solutions, treated gas leaves process saturated with water. On the other
hand energy requirements for regeneration of physical solvents are low. Their drawbacks are
sensitivity to partial pressures of sour gases and possible difficulty in achieving desired levels of
removal. Selective absorbent is the one which absorbs only certain components of gas mixture.
Selective absorption is the most common method of removal of gaseous impurities [8]. MEA,
DEA and DGA processes are used to removed both carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. TEA
and MDEA are applied when only H2 S is to be removed. When chosing absorbent main factors
which should be considered are absorption capacity (defines amount of circulating absorbent),
energy needed to decompose sour gases-absorbent compounds, volatility and corrosivity.
MEA absorption capacity is the largest among ethanolamines. However it is volatile and
forms hardly decomposible compound with COS. COS is not present in extracted gas though,
therefore this disadvantage is not applicable for considered installation. According to [8] chem-
ical reaction occuring between MEA and H2 S is the following:

2HO −C2 H4 − NH2 + H2 S (HO −C2 H4 − NH3 )2 S (1)

between MEA and CO2 :

15
 2HO −C2 H4 − NH2 +CO2 (HO −C2 H4 − NH3 )2CO3 (2)

Figure 7: Simplified MEA process

Simplified process flow of MEA installation has been shown in figure 7. Contaminated
gas enters contactor (1, the other name is absorber) close to the bottom and leaves at the top.
Absorbent in contactor flows countercurrently, from the top to bottom. Absorbent saturated
with CO2 and H2 S is heated up in heat exchanger (2) by non-saturated stream coming from
regenerator (3, also known as desorber or stripper). Inside desorber it is mixed with vapor of
lean absorbent. This mixture flows through water cooler (4) to the separator (5). There, sour gas
is separated and leaves process. In large plant this product is further processed in order to obtain
elemental sulfur. Lean absorbent flows back to stripper. Contents of stripper are being reboiled
in reboiler (6), often low pressure steam is for heating purpouses. Finally lean absorbent is
pumped back to absorber. On that way it is cooled in heat exchanger (2) and in water cooler (7).
Unit utilising alkali salts, namely hot potassium carbonate, is very similar to amine installa-
tion. Main purpouse of this process is to remove carbon dioxide, however also hydrogen sulfide
may be taken out. Chemical formulas describing this process are the following:

K2CO3 +CO2 + H2 O ↔ 2KHCO3 (3)

K2CO3 + H2 S ↔ KHS + KHCO3 (4)

Main advantage if this process is lower energy usage. Large amounts (one third up to two
thirds) of CO2 are released from absorbent due to pressure reduction. This reduces need for
stripping steam. Less heat exchangers is required, since lean solution leaves stripper at the
same temperature as it enters contactor. Finally heat of absorption is lower than in case of
amins, therefore less heat is needed to regenerate absorbent. This process performs best when
applied to gases with high content of carbon dioxide and relatively low of hydrogen sulfide.
Special design features are required to enhance H2 S removal.
In forementioned processes two steps are present: physical absorption and then chemical
reaction. There are however processes, like Selexol® or Rectisol®, where only physical ab-
sorption is utilised. Since partial pressure of acid gases is driving force of those processes, they
perform best when it is high. However, they absorb heavy hydrocarbons strongly. Due to this

16
sour gases are removed best when their content is low. Regeneration requirements are lower
for physical absorbents than for chemical ones. Because separation takes place in near ambient
temperatures equipment is simplified and cheaper. Finally, on the contrary to water saturating
amine processes, here partial dehydration occurs. Typically Selexol®, which is a mixture of
polyethylene glycols, is used.

Figure 8: Selexol® process

In [5] example of installation utilising this absorbent is shown. This is the distribution plant
for Europe. Composition of inlet and outlet gas are shown in table 3. Figure 8 shows scheme
of this process. Initially chilled gas enters the bottom of absorber (1). Solvent absorbs some
components and flows through high pressure flash chamber, medium pressure flash chamber
and vacuum flash chamber (2, 3 and 4 respectively). Vacuum is obtained in vacuum unit (5).
Reject gas from vacuum and medium pressure chambers is compressed in compressor (6) and
removed. This gas contains mostly carbon dioxide and heavier hydrocarbons. Lean solvent is
pumped through propane chiller (7) back to absorber. Mixture of treated gas and solvent leaves
at the top of absorber. In knockout drum (8) solvent is separated from treated gas, which moves
to further processing. It can be seen in table 3 that levels of removal are sufficient for pipeline
quality gas. However, achieved content of CO2 is too high for purpouse of liquefaction. Due
to lack of irreversible chemical reactions no products requireing reclaiment are formed. This
solution would be useful as first stage of purification if content of CO2 was high.
Hybrid absorption processes are also applicable. They make possible to utilise advantages
of different types of solvents. Depending on choice of substances nearly complete removal
of sour gases is possible. The most often used are combinations of physical solvents with
amines. According to [5] Sulfinol® is currently used the most widely out of those processes.
There the combination of physical solvent (sulfolane) with DIPA or MDEA is utilised. Such
system, despite their efficiency, are complex and expensive and won’t be applicable in a field
installation.
Adsorption is another method of removal of sour gases. Due to water replacing sour gases
it is not widely used. There are three main ways of applying this method [8]. First option is

17
 Table 3: Inlet and outlet compositions for Selexol® process
Composition (mol%)
Component Inlet Outlet
Hydrogen sulfide 0,0002 -
Methyl mercaptan 0,00050 0,00012
Carbon dioxide 2,44 0,29
Nitrogen 0,785 0,88
Methane 86,317 93,02
Ethane 7,539 5,33
Propane 2,403 0,35
Heavier Hydrocarbons 0,515 0,13

removal of hydrogen sulfide by oxidating this on activated carbon or ferric oxide bed. Second is
usage of molecular sieves. There both CO2 and H 2 S are removed. Finally it is possible to apply
high-temperature sorption of hydrogen sulfide on active zinc oxide bed. The latter process is
mostly used as second stage of sulfur removal in chemical industry, therefore its usage will not
be considered.
Activated carbon bed method is used most often for the purification of industrial gases.
Application of this for natural gas installations is limited to small volumetric flows. Such flows
are expected to be processed by the field installation. In this unit H2 S containing gas is passed
through few layers of activated carbon. Gas is doped with oxygen (up to 0,1%) and ammonia
(also around 0,1%). Ammonia posseses desirable catalytic qualities. Reaction occuring in this
unit is described by the following formula:
1
H2 S + O2 → H2 O + S (5)
2
Sulfur is gathering until its mass reaches 50-150% of mass of carbon in the bed. Unit is
made out of few beds (scheme of one of those in figure 9. As soon as activated carbon in
the bed is saturated flow of gas is moved to another one. Saturated bed is subject to cleaning.
This is done by blowing nitrogen thorugh it and rinsing this with hot water (around 70ºC).
This removes ammonium carbonate which forms due to reaction of the catalyst (NH 3 ) with
carbon dioxide present in gas. Removal of sulfur is achieved by usage of ammonium sulfide
solution. During process achievement of clarity of ammonium sulfide means that regeneration
was finished. After cleaning bed with water and blowing with steam it is operational again.
Saturated solution is purified in special column. Retrieved ammonium sulfide is returned to
process and molten elemental sulfur is removed.
Much more often used, especially when preparing gas for liquefaction, is molecular sieves
method. This is applied as final pre-processing operation, after initial desulfurisation and de-
hydration. It may be also used for selective removal. According to [8] order of removal is as
follows:

R2 S2 → R2 S → RSH → H2 S → CO2 → CS2 → COS (6)

Since hydrocarbons are not adsorbed it is possible to simultaneously dry and desulfurize
gas. Operation of this unit is very similar to described in detail adsorption dehydration installa-
tion (shown in figure 12). In figure 10 simplified scheme of regeneration processes in adsorption
desulfurization unit was shown. After initial removal of liquid (1) gas enters operational adsor-
ber (2), where it is purified. Part of pure gas is extracted and enters regenerated bed (3). There

18
 Figure 9: Activated carbon bed

the main difference between this process and dehydration comes. Content of hydrogen sulfide
in gas leaving regenerated bed is very high. It cannot therefore be returned directly to raw gas
stream. It is processed in another desulfurization unit (mostly utilizing absorption processes)
and then routed back to feed stream. Rejected H2 S is disposed off.

Figure 10: Regeneration processes in adsorption desulfurization unit

After removal sulfides, depending on the amount and state of removed product, may be
disposed off, incinerated, reinjected or reduced to elemental sulfur. It would be impossible to
incinerate sulfides in purge gas without previous treatment. Carbon dioxide after separation
may be vented to environment or reinjected into the reservoir in order to enhance recovery.
However, since the amounts are expected to be small, venting of both gases is the most suitable
and feasible option.

19
4.3 D EHYDRATION

Water in vapor form cannot be removed during initial separation. Water is partially respon-
sible for corrosion, so its removal prolongs lifetime of installation and reduces need for parts
replacement. Presence of water vapor distorts measurements results. Formation of hydrates is
another risk which has to be eliminated. Hydrates are the type of clathrates, which are solid
materials formed due to hydrogen bonding of water. Water molecules create cage structures
inside which methane particles are trapped. Conditions promoting formation of clatrates are
presence of water and hydrocarbon molecules, high pressure and low temperature. All of them
would be fulfilled if water were not removed. The other problem is the reduction of pipelines’
transport capacity [8].
In case of considered installation, though, the most important reason to remove water is the
risk of freezing of the cold equipment. Ice might form in any part of the cryogenic section of
the plant if water will not be nearly completely removed. It may stop flow of gas and prevent
heat transfer. Particles of ice might severely damage moving parts in the equipment. Ice stems
in ducts may lead to detrimental pressure increase. It is imperative that the dew point of water
was lower than temperature at any point of the process. Liquefaction of natural gas is the most
demanding type of process when considering moisture level. There are three main methods of
removing vapor utilised in gas industry. These are absorption, adsorption and condensation [9].
They divide further into subtypes, each of them is applicable at different required dew point
level.
Condensation (achieved by cooling) is used for obtaining the highest dew point temper-
atures, ranging from 40ºC to -20ºC. During decrease of gas temperature, water forms liquid
phase and then is removed from stream. Same thing happens to natural gas liquids, therefore
this method is used for simultaneous removal of both them and water. Cooling occurs at the heat
exchanger. Depending on cooling medium different dew points are achieved. Air cooling is the
least efficient and allows to gain dew point at the range of 40-20ºC. In case of operation in arc-
tic conditions (like in Norway or Siberia) this temperature might be lower. Alternatively water
might be used to decrease moisture level so that dew point temperature will account to around
10ºC. The most efficient cooling medium are industrial refrigerants, these allow lowering dew
point to c.a. -20ºC.
Similar level may be achieved when applying other cooling method - expansion utilising
Joule-Thompson effect. It does not require heat exchanger since all the temperature drop is
achieved by means of converting kinetic energy of molecules to potential. However, according
to [9], risk of hydrate and ice formation appears in case of high pressure difference. Hydrate
formation is avoided often by injection of inhibitor or keeping product state away from forma-
tion region. Ice is removed by internal heating of equipment. Throttling of natural gas takes
place in devices named flash tanks. Droplets which forms there are removed in demister similar
to ones described in inlet receiving section.
Dew point levels achieved when utilising absorption methods depends mostly on used ab-
sorbent. Usage of CaCl solutions allows to yield dew points of 20-10ºC. Better results may
be obtained when applying glycols, especially diethylene glycol (DEG) and triethylene gly-
col (TEG). TEG is the most commonly used and standard absorbent. In figure 11 simplified
scheme of process may be seen. Gas from inlet receiving enters dehydrator (1) bottom. It flows
upwards and after being dehydrated leaves at the top of device. Lean absorbent enters at the top
and absorbs water while flowing down. After leaving dehydrator it goes to the heat exchanger
inside still (2) where is heated up, serving at the same time as coolant. Heated rich absorbent is
moved to flash tank (3), where flash gas (which high quality dry gas and may be further used)
is extracted. Then, in heat exchanger (4) it is heated up by lean solution leaving the still. After

20
that rich solution enters the still, where water is removed. Steam is being disposed out of the
still. Leaned solution enters surge tank (5). From there it is pumped to precooler (6), where it
is cooled down in order to enhance absorption. Still is heated up by hot steam or oil (7).

Figure 11: Absorption drying process

Dew point temperature achievable in such process is -30ºC. This is enough for pipeline
transport in most of the conditions. Since absorption methods are cheap and efficient they
are the most widely used. Glycols are easy to obtain and do not dissolve in hydrocarbons.
Unfortunately they are toxic, so should be handled with great care in safe environment. The
process is rather complex and requires large amounts of heat to lean down glycol. It must
be also refilled periodically. Excluding refills they may operate continuosly, without need for
immediate intervention. In order to obtain low dew points, very high concentrations of glycol
are needed, around 99% for dew point of -25ºC.
Third of main dehydration methods is an adsorption. In this process solid dessicant adsorbs
water and, when it is saturated, it is regenerated. In such processes the lowest concentrations
(dew point even in range of -80ºC for molecular sieves) of vapor are achieved. There are two
types of adsorption, physical adsorption and chemisorption. In the first one bonding between
dessicant surface and water is realised by means of van der Vaals forces. In the latter stronger,
chemical bonds occur. Adsorption rate depends mostly on partial pressure of vapor, size of
contact area and characteristics of dessicant. The most often used dessicants are silica gel made
of pure SiO2 , activated alumina (Al2 O3 ) and molecular sieves formed by alkali aluminosilicates.
Due to the fact that adsorption takes place in the layer only few molecules deep, materials of
extreme porosity must be applied. Process is being slowed down due to the fact that gas must
be transported inside material, which causes decrease in production capacity.
Scheme of process is shown in figure 12. Raw gas coming from well enters inlet receiv-
ing (1) after being mixed with gas coming back from process. After removal of liquids it passes
the valve and enters operational bed (2). There vapor is removed by adsorption. Settings of
valves may be adjusted so that beds operate and regenerate alternately. Part of dry gas is ex-
tracted from main stream which goes further to the installation. Extracted gas is heated up in
heater (3), so that it will desorp water from dessicant more efficiently. Heated gas enters regen-
erated bed (4). There it removes water and, as wet gas, enters condenser (5). In this devices

21
gas is cooled down and water vapor condenses. Liquid is taken out in water knockout (6). Then
gas is compressed in a compressor (7) in order to compensate losses in the unit and equalize
pressure with raw gas. Finally it is reinjected to the stream coming from well.

Figure 12: Adsorption drying process

Product of all described processes (excluding simultaneous extraction of natural gas liquids)
is water, without or with only tracable amounts of other components. Therefore it may be safely
disposed back to environment. It may be also used as coolant in other processes. If it takes form
of vapor and has high temperature it might be utilised as heating medium.

4.4 M ERCURY REMOVAL

Mercury is another component present in wellhead gas. Two predominant reasons to remove
this is its toxicity and corrosivity. Mercury may accumulate in body tissues leading to serious
diseases. It attacks mostly central nervous system and endocrine system. Prolonged exposure
leads to brain damage and death. It causes hereditary damages by affecting fetus during preg-
nancy. Every form of mercury is poisonous in high enough dose. Strict regulations concerning
usage and trade of mercury have been introduced in both United States and European Union.
American Occupational Safety and Health Administration defined maximum allowed content
of elemental mercury in air as 0,1mg/m3 .
In liquefied natural gas installations its content must be lowered even more. Mercury is very
reactive and dissolves most of metals as well as forms compounds. In LNG plants the most vul-
nerable to damages caused by mercury presence are aluminium components. These are mostly
parts of heat exchangers in cryogenic section of installation. There are two main mercury dam-
age mechanisms. Firstly, mercury is capable of penetrating protective aluminium oxide layer.

22
This lets oxygen to react freely with aluminium and leads to complete corrosion of element.
Second mechanism is liquid metal embrittlement. When mercury comes to direct contact with
aluminium it forms amalgam, which is a solution of aluminium in mercury. It leaves a micro-
scopic crack, which weakens the structure of component[11]. This occurs when temperature is
above freezing point of mercury (around -39ºC). For cryogenic equipment such temperatures
are often met during maintenance. Mercury attacks then metal and, when equipment is back in
operation, leads to malfunction.
Mercury in gas may be present in few forms. These are vapor, liquid elemental droplets
and solid amalgams. It may be removed utilising few processes. The mostly widely used is
reaction with elemental sulfur supported by coal bed [12]. This method, however, has some
disadvantages. Firstly the only environmentally acceptable way of removing spent material is
to combust it and condense released mercury. Secondly due easiness of capillary condensation
on small pores of sulfur only dry gas may be purified. Finally, elemental sulfur is subject to
sublimation. The other option is to amalgamate mercury with precious metals. This is not only
costly, but also poses risk of re-release of mercury during regenereation. Currently inorganic
removal methods are developed. Mercury is highly reactive with variable latency metal sulfides
and behaves according to the following chemical formula:

Hg + MxSy = MxSa + HgS (7)

Reactive metal needs to be incorporated in inorganic support and absorbent is supplied with
reactive sulfide. This approach covers most of the mentioned disadvantages. Absorbent can be
regenerated in metal smelters and both wet and dry gas may be processed. Risk of capillary
condensation is minimised. Finally, sublimation of sulfur is avoided. This process is relatively
simple and efficient.

4.5 H YDROCARBONS EXTRACTION

Heavier hydrocarbons and gasoline are another components that have to be removed before liq-
uefaction. Removal of these components is often conducted in low temperatures [8]. Therefore
hydrocarbons separation units are placed after desulfurization and dehydration steps. Normally
amount of hydrocarbons other than methane is adjusted predominantly in order to set certain
heating value. In case of LNG substance properties become important, especially melting anf
boiling point. All components of LNG must be present in liquid form at the temperature of
product. Therefore all content of butane (melting point of -138ºC) and heavier hydrocarbons
must be removed, since they would solidify. Ethane and propane may be present to such extent
that norms for composition of LNG and its heating value will be fulfilled. However, if any of
those components is needed for other processes (e.g. as chemical industry substract) they may
be removed as well. Products of those processes may be sold to customers if present in high
enough amounts.
Division of processes is ambiguous. In [8] they are divided into low temperature condensa-
tion, low temperature absorption and low temperature rectification. In condensation process gas
is cooled down to the temperature which depends on few factors. Since natural gas is multicom-
ponent mixture its phase change behavior is complex and is determined by its composition. The
other factor is pressure. The same composition of the product of process may be achieved by
applying different combinations of pressure and temperature. Condensation may be conducted
by lowering temperature of product under constant pressure or by increasing pressure when
sustaining constant temperature. In case of constant temperature process lighter hydrocarbons,
like methane, may be lost by dissolving in mixture. Problem of selectivity is not present in case

23
of constant pressure process. Each installation of this type contains several stages. The first is
compression stage, when gas is pressurised to pressure required for the process. Next one is
cooling stage, where two phase mixture is formed. Then it is separated. Final step is removal
of methane or ethane and methane from condensed liquid.

Figure 13: Low temperature condensation installation

Scheme of low temperature condensation unit with multistream spiral heat exchanger is
shown in figure 13. Dehydrated gas enters heat exchanger (1) where it is cooled by gas streams
leaving processes, as well as by propane coming from an external refrigeration cycle. Any
other coolant may be used, if possesing sufficient thermal properties. Two phase mixture forms,
which is portioned out in separator (2). Gas phase is removed from process through heat ex-
changer, while liquid passes expansion valve (3), where its temperature decreases and reenters
heat exchanger. There it is further cooled with propane. After that it flows to rectification col-
umn (4). From its top gaseous product is removed. It passes propane evaporator (5) where is
chilled down. In this process hydrocarbon dew is obtained. Obtained liquid is moved to dew
storage tank (6) and is returned to column. Processed gas leaves unit through main heat ex-
changer. Liquid product from bottom of the column is removed as well. Part of this is heated in
heater (7), while rest is removed and further processed to separate different hydrocarbons.
Absorption method utilises devices very similar to ones used at any absorption unit de-
scribed before. There are few differences, however. Scheme of process is shown in figure 14.
Gas to be processed enters at the bottom of absorber (1). There it rejects heavier hydrocar-
bons and leaves at the top. Absorbent flowing downwards in absorber gets saturated and flows
through heat exchangers (2) where is heated up by lean absorbent returning from desorber. In
between heat exchanger the separator is placed (3). There mixture of light hydrocarbons is
released. Presence of this separator is first major difference to standard process. This is done
in order to remove methane and ethane dissolved in absorbent. Absorbent leaves separator
and flows further through steam heater (11) and enters desorber (4). There gasoline is released,
which flows to the top of the desorber. It is cooled down in water cooler (5) and liquid phase ap-
pears. Separation takes place in another separator (6). Liquid is partially removed from process
as raw gasoline. Rest of liquid product is returned to desorber. Gaseous fraction is compressed
in compressor (7) and cooled in water cooler (8), similarly to stage before. This compression

24
stage is another addition to this process, added in order to enhance propane recovery. Recov-
ered propane is returned to feed stream and liquid gasoline is removed from unit. In this process
mainly used absorbents are kerosene, benzine and stripping oil.

Figure 14: Absorption hydrocarbon removal process

Low temperature rectification methods are used often to obtain pure hydrocarbons and to
release nitrogen. In figure 15 such process utilising turboexpander is shown. Initially gas is
cooled down in heat exchanger (1) by rectified product. In separator (2) it is split into liquid and
vapor stream. Vapor stream is expanded in turboexpander (3) and it decreases its temperature.
Turboexpander drives turbocompressor (4), which pressurizes product. This is the major source
of energy savings and advantage of this process when compared to low temperature condensa-
tion units. Liquid phase from separator is expanded in Joule-Thomson valve, where it lowers its
temperature as well. Then both streams are mixed and enter rectification column (6). Product
from the top is routed further through either compressor or to the pipeline. Meanwhile hydro-
carbon fractions are removed from the bottom of column. Part of them is heated up with steam
in heater (7) and returned to column.
Twister® supersonic separator is a device capable of removing condensing impurities by
means of centrifugal force/citetwister. Scheme of device is shown in figure 16. Firstly gas
passes vanes (1) shaped so swirling motion is started. Then it is expanded and accelerated
to supersonic velocity in De Laval nozzle (2). This results in pressure and temperature drop.
Heavier hydrocarbons and water condenses. Droplets agglomerate on the wall due to difference
in centrifugal force and are removed in cyclone separator (3). Kinetic energy of gas is converted
back into pressure at a diffuser (4).

4.6 N ITROGEN REJECTION

Nitrogen is the final component to be removed from natural gas. Due to lower boiling tem-
perature of nitrogen than of methane this process may be conducted before, after and during
liquefaction process. Processes applied before include adsorption and membrane separation.
Cryogenic distillation may be conducted both during and after liquefaction. Rejected nitrogen

25
 Figure 15: Low temperature rectification process with turboexpander

Figure 16: Twister® supersonic separator

is simply vented out to atmosphere. In case of large installations and helium containing gas,
product of this process could be further treated in order to obtain pure helium. This is valu-
able product and therefore may be sold to customers. The other reason to remove nitrogen is
its noncombustibility. It lowers heating value of gas and creates additional costs for pipeline
transport. The other reason to separate nitrogen is to reinject this into the reservoir. In case of
LNG installations this is just by-product of liquefaction process. Nitrogen, however, is capable
of dissolving in hydrocarbons. Therefore if very low content is to be obtained more sophisti-
cated removal methods would be applied. Since LNG is supposed to be final product, cryogenic
distillation would be the preferred choice, however the other methods will be described as well.
Helium recovery processes are too complex and energy intensive to be applied in field installa-
tion and will not be considered.
Membrane separation is cheap and does not require constant supervision. This is very sim-
ple and does not contain moving parts. It takes little place and is very reliable. There are
significant disadvantages however. The first one is requirement for clean gas, with no liquids
and particles. This term is met in case of nitrogen rejection. More important is pressure loss,
which would require recompression. This would consume very large amounts of energy. Also,
some hydrocarbon content is lost. Figure 17 shows an example of a very simple membrane
separation unit. Feed gas (containing around 10% of nitrogen in this example) is compressed

26
 Figure 17: Membrane nitrogen rejection unit

in compressor (1) and enters first membrane separation module (2). From there gas for lique-
faction, which contains less than 4% of nitrogen is taken out. The rest of gas flows to second
membrane module (3). Return gas (with 15% of nitrogen) is reinjected into feed stream. Leav-
ing gas (named fuel gas in [5]), which contains 50% of nitrogen may be used as compressor
fuel or heat source for other processes. In order to achieve higher level of nitrogen rejection
additional membrane modules may be added.
Pressure swing adsorption is another process which may be used to remove nitrogen from
gas stream. This is slightly different than adsorption processes described before, which were
thermal swing adsorption processes. General principle remains the same. Adsorption rate de-
pends on the adsorbent, adsorbed substance (adsorbate), temperature and adsorbate’s partial
pressure. There are two steps in every adsorption processes. The first one is adsorption, when
substance is separated. The second is regeneration by desorption of collected species. In pres-
sure swing adsorption gas is regenerated by means of changing partial pressure of species to
be removed. Figure 18 depicts general dependance of sorption capacity on partial pressure,
known also as the adsorption isotherm. It can be clearly seen that by manipulating pressure
process may be conducted in both directions. Adsorption process takes place at high pressure,
and regeneration at low.

Figure 18: Dependance of sorption capacity on partial pressure of substance

Simple diagram of process is shown in figure 19. Feed gas with partial pressure of nitrogen
of p2 and content of X2 is supplied to operational bed (1). Its partial pressure and content is
reduced due to adsorption process to p1 and X1 respectively. If nitrogen content in product gas
is higher than X1 that means that bed is saturated and should be regeneraterd. Through desorbed
bed (2) purge gas flows. Its partial pressure of nitrogen is equal to p1 so that it is in equilibrium
with bed after desorption. If there is no nitrogen in purge gas, partial pressure is equal to 0.

27
That means that all nitrogen is removed from regenerated bed. Since nitrogen from feed gas
is rejected to content X1 (dependant on p1 ), whole nitrogen may be removed if right purge gas
will be chosen. In actual process due to some irreversibilities this capacity is slightly limited,
however this method still allows to remove nitrogen to very low levels.

Figure 19: Pressure swing adsorption process

Cryogenic distillation is the most commonly used method of nitrogen rejection. This is
long used and well known technology. It utilises difference in condensation temperature of
hydrocarbons and nitrogen. While hydrocarbons condense, nitrogen stays in gaseous phase.
Figure 20 depicts simple cryogenic distillation unit with one distillation column. Initially feed
gas is supplied to heat exchanger (1) where it is precooled by streams from distillation column
(3). Those streams include gaseous rejected nitrogen and two phase mixture of nitrogen and
methane bleeded from middle of column. The latter after being heated up reenters at the bottom
of column enhancing distillation. After precooling feed gas enters expansion valve where major
temperature drop occurs. Methane condenses inside distillation column and flows out at the
bottom as saturated or nonsaturatef liquid depending on design features. Gaseous nitrogen
leaves at the top of column and after passing through heat exchanger is disposed off.

Figure 20: Cryogenic distillation unit

28
 In this case solubility of nitrogen in natural gas needs to be considered. Due to complexity
of calculation, natural gas properties will be approximated as those of methane. According to
[13] empirical equation for mole fraction of nitrogen dissolved in methane is:

ln(x1 ) = 0, 34572 − 10, 4175ln(τ) + 0, 28887(P) + 1, 58147ln(P) (8)

where τ = T /100 and is dimensionless component. Value of P is equal to pressure in MPa
and should be dimmensionless as well. Both equations are valid over the range 0,02 MPa to 5
MPa and 91K to 181K.

4.7 A PPLICABLE TECHNOLOGIES

Criteria for choice of technology are coherent with the ones defined in the introduction. For
each contaminant the most profitable and matching methods are pointed.
In case of considered installation properties of vertical cylindrical scrubber combined with
wire mesh pad are the most benefitial. Centrifugal separators and filters are too complicated
or demanding in cleaning. On the other hand combination of cylindrical and inertial separator
is very advantageous. These are relatively simple technologies, so their combination will not
be prohibitively complex. Wire mesh is especially effective for considered size of drops and
velocities. It may be cleaned more rarely than knit mesh. Usage of inertial separator allows to
avoid spiriting of small drops and enhances their removal. Most of the solids is removed dur-
ing initial separation in vertical separator, therefore cleaning issue may be partially dismissed.
Controllability and resistance to gathering of solids are the major arguments in favor of vertical
separator. Difficult montage becomes a problem only when installation is moved. Maintenance
is periodical as well. Final advantage is a small size.
The most of processes for sulfides removal is complex and suitable for very large flows
of contaminated gas. Chemical absorption processes require large amounts of thermal energy.
They consists of numerable parts and they find application in the large plants. The greatest
disadvantage of physical absorption processes is the hydrocarbons loss. Beds with activated
carbon are incapable to achieve desired purity levels and require regeneration. Finally molecular
sieves are the best in achieving low contaminants levels. Unfortunately, if regenerated with the
extracted part of feed gas they require additional purification unit of different. Because of that
process in such configuration should not be applied as sole purificator. Other option is to use the
other purge gas instead of methane. This solution seems to be optimal for a field installation, if
pure gas is available.
Choice of dehydration method is affected mostly by very low dew points needed. All the
dew points achieved when applying condensation methods are too high for liquefying installa-
tion. The other disadvantage is high energy usage of these methods. Since content of natural
gas liquids is expected to be low their advantage of simultaneous separation is invalid.
The application of absorption dehydration unit would be problematic. Complexity and size
along with need for consummables replacing makes them unsuitable for small installations.
Also achieved purity levels are too low for the purpouse of gas liquefaction.
On the other hand adsorption is advantageous Dessicants are not toxic, so they can be used
in environmentally intensive locations. Since they are not corrosive, they can be easily imple-
mented without risking damage to other components. They are resistant to wear and do not lose
their characteristics with. There are some disadvantages though. Capital and usage costs are
very high. Dessicants are expensive materials, which need to be manufactured with large preci-
sion in order to obtain satisfying characteristics. Adsorption process to be continuous requires
multiple beds, where part will be in operation and the rest will be regenerated. Finally capacity

29
is relatively low, so it is inapplicable for large plants. However, in case of small installation ad-
sorption processes are possible to implement, if high costs were overcome. It offers satisfying
level of dehydration and does not require much energy to operate. Exchange of parts is rare and
possibility of malfunction is low. The most suitable dehydation process applicable in the field
plant would be adsorption on molecular sieves.
Removal of hydracarbons is very important in large installations, where gasoline sales have
significant share in profits. It will not be possible to process gasoline further at the field installa-
tion, though. This is due to large complexity of such units and low amounts of gasoline obtained
during separation. Therefore it will be either transported to larger facilities, burned on site or
disposed in any other way. Nevertheless it will be possible to apply one of described before
units in the installation. Due to its simplicity and small size Twister® is the most advantageous
choice for hydrocarbon separator.
Since nitrogen content in the processed gas is expected to be low, there will not be need for
application of any such unit. This is due to the fact that all nitrogen will dissolve in LNG. In
case if the installation was supposed to process gas with the high nitrogen content, cryogenic
distillation unit would be used.

5 L IQUEFACTION OF NATURAL GAS

This section contains description of main methods of liquefaction of natural gas. It is assumed
that preprocessed gas meets all requirements of each liquefaction installation. Product of liq-
uefaction must meet all the criteria for liquefied natural gas. Mostly used types of liquefaction
units are listed and briefly described. Methods applicable in small installations are pointed and
described more detailly. Major liquefaction methods applicable in small installations are isen-
thalpic expansion in Joule-Thomson valve, isentropic expansion in turbine, usage of Stirling
coolers, Prico process and nitrogen sacrifice. There are also methods which are too complex to
be used in small plants. These are cascade processes and mixed refrigerant cycles. Mostly used
types of those are classical cascade process, DMR and MFC mixed refrigerant cycles and AP-X
process [16].
Classical cascade is one of the earliest processes used for liquefaction of gases. It has been
used by Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski for the first in the world liquefaction of
air components in 1883. It was first applied for LNG in 1940s. In classical cascade the first
refrigerant is vapor which may be liquefied in ambient temperature by application of pressure
only. After liquefaction it is expanded and partially vaporises, simultaneously losing tempera-
ture. Then this cold liquid is used to cool another gas, which is then compressed and expanded
and so on. Vaporised liquid returns to compressor which finishes the loop. Any number of
stages may be used in order to achieve desired temperature. Decision about this amount is an
economical choice. In LNG mostly three fluids and three pressure levels are used. Most com-
mon cascade of fluids is propane-ethylene-methane. Its energy usage is relatively low. Each
of the loops can be controlled separately so the optimal operation conditions may be achieved.
Unfortunately, very large amount of heat exchangers and presence of few compressors makes it
impossible to apply in small installation.
DMR, MFC and AP-X processes utilise mixture of fluids. DMR (dual mixed refrigerant)
is a process designed specifically to operate in arctic conditions. Its advantages are ability
to produce LNG in very low ambient temperatures and sustainability of operation over wide
range of temperatures. Generally such advantages would find little use in small installations,
especially for price of extended complexity. DMR system consists of two cooling loops with
separate compressors and few heat exchangers (at least four of those). Similar remarks as

30
for classical cascade process goes to mixed fluid cascade (MFC). Such units are very large,
complex and may efficiently process very large streams of natural gas. Obviously this is not the
case for small unit. Finally, AP-X process was invented in order to reduce costs and increase
efficiency of large LNG installations. It consists of three loops supported by many machines
(like compressors and turboexpanders), as well as tremendous amount of auxiliary devices. It
cannot be considered as usable in case of considered installations. Below processes which are
applicable are listed and described more detailly .

5.1 J OULE -T HOMSON CYCLES

Joule-Thomson cycle bases on change of gas temperature during isenthalpic expansion. Two
factors govern size of temperature decrease. These are pressure drop and initial temperature.
The simplest system would consist of compressor, expansion valve and higher and lower heat
exchanger. This is unreasonable, however. Pressure increase required to obtain temperature
drop from ambient temperature to liquefaction temperature would be tremendous. Therefore
counterflow heat exchanger should be placed to cool down gas entering Joule-Thomson valve
with unliquefied part of methane returning to compressor. This allows to take advantage on
the fact that in case of methane cooling effect obtained during expansion increases dramatically
with lowering initial temperature. System with added heat exchanger is depicted in figure 21.

Figure 21: Joule-Thomson liquefaction cycle

Initially make-up gas is mixed with gas returning from process and compressed in compres-
sor (A). After that it is cooled to ambient temperature using regular air cooler (B). Then it is
cooled again in counterflow heat exchanger (C) by nonliquified fraction from liquid receiver
(D). After that it passes Joule-Thomson valve (E) where it is expanded and drop of tempera-
ture occurs. Finally it enters liquid receiver from which liquid part is removed as product, and
gaseous phase returns to cycle. Normally no gas is liquefied right after beginning of the process.
All volume of gas entering liquid receiver passes back through heat exchanger progressively
lowering initial temperature of expansion. Therefore temperature decrease in Joule-Thomson
valve increases. When liquefaction temperature is achieved liquid fraction is started to be re-
moved from liquid receiver. Because of that less and less of chilled gas flows through heat
exchanger, lowering amount of heat which is exchanged. Eventually equilibrium and steady
state operation is achieved with constant rate of liquefied natural gas produced.

31
 Joule-Thomson coolers are the simplest possible mechanical coolers [16] capable of liq-
uefying natural gas. They are very reliable and easy to construct. Nevertheless, due to irre-
versibilities performance is poor. It may be improved by expanding the cycle. However, it will
lose then its main advantage - simplicity. Possible improvements contain addition of external
refrigeration source, to lower inlet temperature of Joule-Thomson valve. The other is to di-
vide compressor into more sections. Only the latter solution is applied in LNG industry [5].
Joule-Thomson cycle may be applied in small installations. It is very reliable, however it lacks
efficiency.

5.2 E XPANDER CYCLES

Expansion of gas may be executed nearly reversibly, or in case of ideal device even reversibly.
Reversible process bears two major advantages. Firstly, it makes possible to recover part of
work used during compression and reduce energy requirements. Secondly, temperature drop
obtained during reversible expansion is the largest possible for a given pressure range. Both pos-
itive displacement and dynamic expanders are available for this process. Positive displacement
expanders are basically reciprocating compressors with reversed flow. Adiabatic efficiency of
those is around 70%. Dynamic expanders are divided due to flow direction. Machines with cen-
tripetal flow, like turboexpanders, utilise gas enthalpy by driving treated gas with nozzle to the
periphery of the wheel. Expansion causes wheel to rotate. Finally gas is exhausted at the axis.
Axial-flow expanders are very similar to steam turbines. Turboexpanders achieve isentropic
efficiencies of 85-90%, while axial flow machines of around 80%.
Historically reciprocating expanders were first used in LNG industry, currently turboex-
panders are most commonly met. Irreversibilities which lead to loss of efficiency are mostly
losses in inlet and outlet valves and piston friction. In case of turboexpanders friction in bear-
ings plays its role as well. The other causes are incomplete expansion and heat transfer into
the system. In order to obtain best efficiencies, work of expansion needs to be removed from
system. In large plants turboexpanders are coupled with turbocompressors. It is also possible
to join reciprocating expander with reciprocating compressor. In smaller plants recovery of ex-
pander work is not economically justified [5]. In this case it is connected to braking device or
electric generator. It is very complex to build expander capable of handling two-phase mixture.
Therefore in liquefaction cycles expanders are used for chilling down gas, while liquefaction
takes place in Joule-Thomson valve or heat exchanger.
Cycles used for liquefaction may be of open or closed type. In a closed cycle expanded gas
is used as external source of refrigeration. Figure 22 shows diagram of simple cycle of this type.
Actual closed cycle systems are much more complex than one shown in this section. Working
fluid (often nitrogen in case of LNG) is compressed in a compressor (1). Then it is cooled to
ambient temperature in a cooler (2) and expanded in an expander (3). It cools feed gas at a heat
exchanger (4). All feed gas entering heat exchanger is liquefied and is ready to be stored.
This solution has few considerable advantages over open cycles. Firstly, safety is improved
by minimising contact of flammable natural gas with moving equipment. Secondly it is easier
to start and operate. It may be easily turned on and off depending on demand for refrigeration.
Finally lower purification requirements for feed gas may be applied. Possible solidification
is much less severe in heat exchanger than in moving equipment. Main disadvantage is high
energy usage and low efficiency. Performance may be improved, however, by addition of pre-
coolers. Similarly to Joule-Thomson cycle, closed cycle expanders are mostly applied at small
installations.
In open cycle feed gas is used also as working fluid. These cycles are simpler than closed

32
 Figure 22: Closed expansion cycle

ones. Figure 23 illustrates the basic principle of operation. Feed gas is mixed with gas coming
back from process and enters first heat exchanger (A). There the mixture is cooled. After
leaving first heat exchanger part of gas is extracted and the rest enters second heat exchanger
(B). Chilled gas is expanded in Joule-Thomson valve (C) and, as two-phase mixture, flows into
liquid receiver (D). There the liquid fraction is separated and as LNG sent to storage. Gaseous
fraction is mixed with previously extracted gas, which has been expanded in turboexpander (E).
This mixture has very low temperature and flows through both heat exchangers. Finally it is
mixed again with feed gas. In the figure thermodynamic boundary is marked with dotted line.

Figure 23: Open expander cycle

Considering application, similar remarks as to the open cycle goes to this one. Despite ap-
parently more complex principle of operation this system is simpler, since it does not utilise

33
additional refrigeration loop. Gas is compressed prior to entering liquefaction unit. Neverthe-
less, both systems require large amounts of energy, which may be difficult to supply to planned
installation.

5.3 P RICO PROCESS

In order to approach even closer cooling curve of natural gas mixed refrigerant processes have
been invented. There mixture of different refrigerants is used instead of pure ones. By chosing
composition of refrigerants condensing at various temperature and applying them in one cycle
close match may be achieved. When using one loop with mixture in this, only a single compres-
sor is needed. This is significant advantage, when compared to cascade processes. Generally
mixed refrigerant cycles are divided into closed and open cycles. For closed cycles refriger-
ant is often a mixture of nitrogen, methane, ethane, propane, butane and sometimes pentane.
Compositions is adjusted according to composition of natural gas to be liquefied. Refrigerant is
initially compressed and then partially condensed in water cooler. Then it is gradually expanded
and for each stage liquid is separated. This produces cold fluid required to chill, liquefy and
subcool natural gas. All parameters of heat exchange are adjusted to approximate cooling curve
as closely as possible. Precooling cycle often takes place in plate fin heat exchangers. In order
to liquefy and subcool natural gas spiral wound heat exchangers are applied [17].
In figure 24, basing on [18], simplified diagram of commercially used PRICO® system has
been shown. PRICO® is a relatively simple single mixed refrigerant closed cycle. Composition
of refrigerant is the same like of natural gas to be liquefied. Feed gas is applied to main heat
exchanger (1), where it is liquefied. As LNG it is sent to storage. Cooling loop starts with
compressor (2). Compressed refrigerant flows to water cooler (3). There it partially condenses.
Two phase mixture enters flash drum (4), where it is separated. Both phases are throttled in the
separate expansion valves (5) and then cooled in main heat exchanger. High pressure liquid,
which is an effect of this process is further expanded and becomes chilled two phase mixture.
This is completely vaporised and superheated while flowing through heat exchanger. As a
vapor it reenters the compressor. Product gas leaving heat exchanger may be further expanded
if pressurised enough. Precooled propane process is very similar to this one, with addition of
propane cooling system which precools certain flows of mixed refrigerant.

34
 Figure 24: Diagram of PRICO® system

5.4 S TIRLING COOLERS

Cryogenic gas machines basing on Stirling cycle may be used for the liquefaction of natural
gas. Wide range of production capacity may be achieved when applying those. [19] reports
that it is possible to construct small (up to 100l/h), medium (700-1000l/h) and large (more than
1000l/h) units. Two types of coolers based on Stirling cycle are developed. The first is piston
Stirling cryocooler and the other is pulse tube cryocooler (known also as thermoacustic cooler).
Both utilises regenerative heat transfer. Pulse tube cryocoolers’ production capacities are too
small for natural gas applications.
System with Stirling cryocooler based on [16] is shown in figure 25. At the beginning it is
similar to most of the other liquefaction cycles. Feed gas is initially compressed in compressor
(1) and cooled to ambient temperature in water cooler (2). Then it passes counterflow heat
exchanger (3) where is cooled down by returning vapor. Then it is expanded in Joule-Thomson
valve (4) and flows to phase separator (5). Liquid phase is removed from there as final product
and gaseous phase flows through heat exchanger to Stirling cryocooler (6). There it is liquified
and sent back to separator. Usage of such liquefaction bears some advantages. Firstly it is
less complex than most of the other cycles. Secondly maintenance is easier due to the fact
that Stirling cooler containes little moving parts and do not require consummables. Finally
cycle is efficient. According to [22] achievable efficiencies are 2-4 times higher than for regular
expansion cycle. Application of this solution in small LNG installations is very promising.

35
 Figure 25: Cooling system with Stirling cycle cryocooler

5.5 L IQUID NITROGEN COOLING

Liquid nitrogen open cycle evaporation is the simplest possible liquefaction process. Liquid
nitrogen stored in insulated tank is evaporated and superheated in counterflow heat exchanger.
Natural gas stream flowing in other direction is liquefied and subcooled. According to [16]
approximately 2,6kg of liquid nitrogen is needed to liquefy 1kg of methane. This value may
slightly change, depending on a level of subcooling and pressures involved. Cost of this so-
lution depends almost completely on price of liquid nitrogen. Nitrogen may be discharged to
atmosphere with no environmental concerns [23]. Size of exchanger depends on the amount
of heat which is to be transferred. The other factors affecting this are properties of streams,
materials and the type of exchanger.

Figure 26: Liquid nitrogen open cycle evaporation process

General scheme of liquefaction process utilising liquid nitrogen tank is very simple and

36
is shown in figure 26. Liquid nitrogen from the tank (1) flows through heat exchanger (2).
There its heat of vaporization as well as heat superheating is transferred to natural gas, which is
liquefied. As superheated vapor it leaves the system. Further improvements may be applied, like
addition of Joule-Thomson valves. Nitrogen’s low temperature enthalpy still may be utilised
further in the process. Choice of nitrogen as coolant is derived from its properties, especially
temperature of vaporisation. Due to its extreme simplicity and compact size choice of this
solution is probably the best for remote LNG unit. Further details concerning design and choice
of heat exchanger will be given in section showing an example of such plant.

6 LNG STORAGE SYSTEMS

This section contains description of the most widely applied liquefied natural gas storage meth-
ods. Each one is described and its usefulness for small installations is assessed. Finally an
optimal one is chosen. LNG storage tanks are divided into in-ground and aboveground tanks
[5]. Further they are divided in accordance with the construction material [24]. Among under-
ground tanks there are conventional vessels settled underground, frozen earth cavity tanks and
mined caverns. This kind of tank cannot be used in small installation because of long construc-
tion time and its permanent placement. Aboveground tanks may be made of steel, concrete or
utilise hybrid construction. Tanks should be insulated in order to prevent heat leaks into the
tank which may cause vaporisation of stored gas. Measures should be also overtaken against
occurence of rollover effect. Since natural gas is a mixture of components with different vapor-
isation temperatures, during its heating fractions with different density appears. Due to several
phenomena effect of density inversion may occur. When density inversion is high enough to
overcome hydrostatic head, lighter and warmer phases may slip to the top. Then large amounts
of gases are released. Research shows that type of tank has minor effect on this phenomenon
[5].
Steel tanks are present in three types, depending on level of containment. These are single,
double and full containment. Single containment tank is made out of two tanks, inner and outer.
In between them thermal isolation is put. Most widely used material for steel tanks is nine
percent nickel steel. Figure 27 depicts scheme of single containment steel tank. 1 in the figure
is an inner nickel steel vessel (also the bottom is made out of nickel steel). 3 is outer carbon
steel tank. In between those perlite insulation (2) is placed. Base insulation is marked with
4. 5 is ground pad made out of reinforced concrete inside which heating wires are placed (6).
Roof (7) of a tank is made out of carbon steel. Under this roof deck (8) is suspended. Tanks of
such design are the simplest and the cheapest of permanent tanks. Full containment tanks are
completely surrounded with concrete shell, while double containment utilise additional concrete
walls.

Figure 27: Steel single containment tank

37
 The other type of tanks are pressurised tanks. They are mostly made of steel. Since they can
be easily transported and installed, tanks of such type will be applied in installation. Scheme of
such tank has been shown in figure 28. Tank is equipped with safety valve (1), which is used in
case of emergency. Both outer (2) and inner (4) tank are made of steel. Between them insulation
layer (4) is placed. Finally there is an inlet/outlet operational valve (5).

Figure 28: Pressurised tank

Pressurised tanks volumes are often smaller compared to more permanent tanks. They are
adjusted to the shorter storage periods. Since installation is supposed to produce only small
amounts of product and tanks will be periodically emptied, the advantage of pressurised tanks
is obvious.

7 E XAMPLE OF INSTALLATION FOR THE FIELD PRODUCTION OF LNG

7.1 C HARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR

Reservoir which properties will be used is based on characteristics of reservoir Ujazd found in
[28] and [29]. Pressure of gas extracted from well is 9,07 MPa, so the reservoir is at medium
pressure group. Temperature of gas is 100ºC. Composition of gas has been adjusted so most of
the processes which would be present in an actual plant will be shown in an example. Assumed
composition and mass flows have been shown in table 4. Compared to an actual composition,
helium content has been removed and amount of nitrogen present has been lowered. Installation
will not contain neither nitrogen nor helium rejection unit. Certain content of hydrogen sulfide
has been added. This will enable to show versatility of plant, capable of removing different
impurities.
Volume of reservoir is 7,56 mln Nm3 . It is assumed that production from this reservoir will
last for approximately 4 years. Technical considerations, shown further, yield instantenous flow
of methane of 35 g/s. All other instaneous mass flows were calculated based on this value.
Considering maintenance time, this leads to annual production of installation of 1,97 mln Nm3 .
Obtained period of production (c.a. 46 months) is close to an assumed value.

7.2 S CHEME OF THE PLANT

Basic installation consists of few essential elements. Their amount and size may vary depend-
ing on specific requirements of a site, but they must be present for plant to be operational.

38
 Component Mass fraction Mass flow
- % g/s
Total 100 36,626
CH4 95,56 35,000
CO2 0,68 0,249
N2 0,82 0,300
H2 O 0,73 0,267
H2 S 0,62 0,227
C2 H6 1,33 0,487
C3 H8 0,19 0,070
C4 H10 0,05 0,018
C5+ 0,02 0,007
Table 4: Composition of gas in the example of reservoir

Fistly there is safety valve and inlet receiving. Then the purification block, containing Twister
and molecular sieves, is applied. After that liquid nitrogen heat exchanger and Joule-Thomson
valve are used to liquefy and decrease temperature and pressure of gas. Finally there are pres-
sure tanks where LNG is held. Installation is supported by gas turbine producing electric power
and heat and network of heat exchangers which increase efficiency of production and allows
regeneration of molecular sieves. Scheme of whole plant has been presented in appendix 1.
Marks, listed in appendix 2, are the same in both main scheme and the ones of specific subsys-
tems.

7.2.1 I NLET RECEIVING

During operation natural gas is extracted from well and, after passing safety valves (A1), enters
inlet receiving (A2, A3). Scheme of entering part of installation is shown in figure 29. Estima-
tion of size has been done basing on /citengp. Because of low content of both water and heavier
hydrocarbons in the extracted gas amount of condensate will be low. Liquids would be stored
in a tank if they were harmful for environment or directly disposed off. Tank would be emp-
tied during maintenance. Inlet receiving would also serve as final safeguard against unexpected
slugs. Due to expected small size of droplets formulas for such ones will be used. Minimum
required mist extractor (A2) area is affected by the maximum velocity of gas and volumetric
flow and is given by the following formula:

V̇A
A= (9)
vt
where V̇ A stands for volumetric mass flow (given in m3 /s) and vt is maximum velocity.
Volumetric mass flow calculated on the basis of initial reservoir conditions is 0,45 l/s. Density
of gas ρ g is 78 kg/m3 , while density of extracted liquid is approximately 960 kg/m3 . Formula
for the velocity of gas utilises both those values in corrected coefficient C. Equations for both
are shown below:
s
(ρl − ρg )
vt = C · (10)
ρg

C = 100 − 4, 12P0,42 (11)

39
 Figure 29: Scheme of inlet receiving

P is the pressure of gas given in bars. Obtained velocity is approximately 0,3 m/s. Minimum
area is therefore 20 cm2 . Such small size is caused by very high density of strongly pressurised
gas coming from the well. In accordance with figure 3.13 in /citengp knit mesh pad will be
chosen. This performs optimally when gas velocities are low. In order to avoid wear and
ensure complete elimination of liquid much larger demister will be applied, with diameter same
as scrubber. Dimmensions of scrubber (A3), where gravitational separation takes place, will
be calculated according to the assumed retention time of gas of 5 minutes. Total volume of
scrubber is given by simply multiplying volumetric flow of gas by time of retention, this is:

V = V̇A · t (12)
This yields volume of 0,14 m3 . When arbitrarly choosing length of 1 m, diameter of approx-
imately 65 cm is obtained. These values will be chosen as dimmensions of scrubber. Inlet to
scrubber should be shaped so initial coalescing was enhanced. Calculation of size of tank (A4)
needed are based on expected volume of separated material. Assuming amount of liquid phase
as 1% of total volume flow, value of approximately 2,5 m3 is obtained. In order to take care
of unexpected slugs, slightly larger tank should be used. Both pressure and temperature will
change only slightly during processing in the inlet receiving. Pressure and temperature at point
1 are assumed to be the same like in the well (9,07 MPa and 100ºC). Some loss of pressure may
occur because of flow through fine apertures in knit mesh pad. Temperature will also decrease,
mostly due to relatively long period of flow of gas through scrubber. Exiting parameters at the
point 2 will be assumed to 9 MPa and 95ºC. At the point 3 loss of pressure will be negligible,
however inside the tank temperature will decrease with time down to ambient temperature.
Measurments which should be performed in order to maintain smooth operation. Firstly
flow of gas coming from the well should be known. This can be measured with ultrasonic flow
meter. Data from this meter would be used to control size of the flow by adjusting position of
the safety valve. At the same point temperature and pressure of inlet gas should be measured.
Levels of liquid in both condensate tank and scrubber need be known to avoid overfill. Finally
detector of droplets should be placed at the outlet of scrubber.

40
 Figure 30: C2+ hydrocarbons removal and treatment system scheme

7.2.2 H YDROCARBONS REJECTION

Gaseous phase enters Twister® device (B1, B2, B3, B4), where heavier hydrocarbons and part
of water vapour are removed. Scheme of heavier hydrocarbons removal and treatment system
is shown in figure 30. Besides Twister there is the system of storage and gas turbine supply (B5,
B6, B7).
State of fluid entering this section (point 1 in figure 30) is the same like the one leaving
scrubber, this is pressure of 9 MPa and temperature of 95ºC. Inside Twister® it changes state
and composition. All considerations are based on producer’s website /citetwisterprod. Twister®
consists of four main parts. Fistly vortex is generated by guiding vanes (B1). Then swirling
gas is expanded in De Laval nozzle (B2), where it achieves very high velocity and both low
pressure and temperature. There condensation of hydrocarbons and part of water content occurs.
Resulting droplets are pushed to the wall because of centrifugal force, then they coalesce. This
liquid part of flow is knocked out in cyclone separator (B3). Gaseous phase moves to the
diffuser (B4), where it regains part of pressure. According to producer this is approximately
70% of initial pressure. Based on these data pressure of gas at point 2 will be assumed to
6,5 MPa and temperature to 70ºC. Then gas flows to further processing.
Heavier hydrocarbons have to be prepared before combusted in a gas turbine. Their initial
pressure (at point 3) is 6,5 MPa and temperature is 60ºC. Further considerations base on usage of
Coolpack software package. It is advantageous to store surplus product as liquid and it should be
combusted as gas. In order to achieve both those goals heat exchanger and expansion valve will
be applied. Inside heat exchanger (B5) heat is transferred from hot gas to cold liquid coming
from expansion or storage. Hot gas is cooled down with constant pressure to approximately

41
 Figure 31: Gas turbine

15ºC (point 4). It is still in supercritical region. Inside expansion valve (B7) it is expanded to
pressure of 4 MPa, which is a state in point 5. Hardly any change in temperature occurs and
product becomes liquid. Now it can be stored in a tank (B6), if there is surplus amount. The rest
flows back to heat exchanger and is gasified. Final temperature of gas at point 6, right before
entering burner of gas turbine (C2), is approximately 30ºC, pressure is the same like before heat
exchanger - 4 MPa. Regulation of flow should be based on amount of fuel entering gas turbine.
It should be held constant and, if there is too large amount of fluid coming from Twister® it
should be stored. Otherwise some fuel should be released from tank.

7.2.3 G AS TURBINE

Amount of gas entering burner is c.a. 2,1 kg/h. Its heating value is high, approximately 47,3
MJ/kg. Scheme of gas turbine has been shown in figure 31. Results come from simulations
performed in Dynamic Network analysis. Mass flow of air entering compressor (C1) is 126
kg/h. At point 1 it is assumed to be in ambient conditions (temperature of 15ºC and pressure
of 1 bar). Then it is pressurised to 10 bar in a compressor with assumed isentropic efficiency
of 0,9. Outlet air at point 2 has temperature of 310ºC. In combustion chamber, fuel (stream 3)
is burned. This results in stream of flue gas with pressure of 10 bar and temperature of 960ºC
(point 4). It is then expanded in turbine (C3) to pressure of 1 bar. This produces approximately
8,5 kW of mechanical power and hot stream of flue gas (temperature of 480ºC at point 5).
Further this stream enters the network of heat exchangers. Mechanical power is converted
in generator (C4) into electricity which is used to power all meters, valves and other energy
consuming equipment.

7.2.4 N ATURAL GAS MAIN FLOW

Further flow of natural gas is shown in figure 32. Natural gas from Twister is routed to sec-
ondary heat exchanger (D1). State at the point 1 is the same like at the outlet of Twister (70ºC
and 6,5 MPa). At this point stream of gas for thermal regulation of molecular sieve beds is
added. Due to small size of this stream its effects will be neglected. In secondary heat ex-
changer natural gas is cooled in order to enhance desorption capabilities with nitrogen coming
from main heat exchanger (D3). Desired temperature of natural gas at the outlet is 220 K.
Pressure loss is assumed to be negligible. Detailed considerations of heat transfer at this heat
exchanger are shown further. Cooled gas enters molecular sieve (D2), which have been regen-
erated and precooled. Chosen size of pores is 4 Å, which is the size of methane molecule.
Chemical formula for such sieve is 1Na2 O : 1Al2 O3 : 2SiO2 : xH2 O /citesievesigma. Such sieve,
according to producer’s website /citesievesch is capable of operating for 16 hours between re-

42
 Figure 32: Flow of main part of natural gas

Figure 33: Operation schedule of molecular sieves

generation procedures. Due to the fact that sieves need to be thermally prepared to regeneration
and operation 3 beds have been introduced operating in 48-hour cycle. Schedule is shown in
figure 33.
After purification small part of gas is extracted for thermal regulation. Major pressure drop
occurs during flow through molecular sieve. Assumed pressure at point 3 is 4 MPa. Then
natural gas is cooled and liquefied in main heat exchanger, which is made of aluminium and
insulated with polyurethane foam. Considerations and results of calculations are shown further.
Liquid is expanded to 4 bar in expansion valve in order to reduce pressure to operation value
of tank. Since expansion takes place entirely in subcooled liquid region change in temperature
is negligible. State inside the tank is assumed to be the same like in point 5. Boiling point of
nitrogen and methane mixture is well above temperature inside the tank (134K in 0,5MPa).

7.2.5 N ITROGEN FLOW

Flow of nitrogen starts at the tank (E1), from which it flows through system of heat exchangers.
Scheme of this flow has been shown in figure 34. Nitrogen leaving tank is saturated liquid at
the pressure of 4 bar. Corresponding temperature at the point 1 is approximately 91 K. The first
of heat exchangers is main heat exchanger (D3), where it takes heat from methane stream and
vaporises. Its outlet temperature (point 2) is 190 K. Pressure loss is negligible. Then it flows to
the secondary heat exchanger, where is heated up by methane coming from Twister®. This heat
exchanger serves as precooler for methane and preheater for nitrogen. Calculations have been
done in accordance with forced convection regime. Temperature changes of both methane and
nitrogen along heat exchanger are shown in figure 35. Outlet temperature (point 3) of nitrogen
is approximately 335 K. Pressure loss is again less than 1 kPa.
Next heat exchanger utilises as heating fluid flue gas from the gas turbine. Inlet temperature
of flue gas (point 7) is 480ºC, its pressure is assumed to be equal to atmospheric. Its outlet
temperature is assumed to 72ºC in order to ensure 10ºC of temperature difference in order for

43
 Figure 34: Flow of nitrogen in the installation

Figure 35: Temperature due to relative length of heat exchanger

44
 Figure 36: Scheme of flow of extracted natural gas

heat transfer to occur. Outlet temperature of nitrogen has been calculated using the following
equation:

ṁ f ·Cp f · (T f i − T f o )
Tno = Tni + (13)
ṁn ·Cpn
Resulting temperature at point 4 is 238ºC. Final heat exchanger is used when heating of
extracted gas is required. Since amount of heated gas is small, temperature of 220ºC will be as-
sumed at the point 5. Application of nitrogen, which is an inert gas, as heating fluid for extracted
methane reduces the risk of fire. Finally hot nitrogen is used to regenerate molecular sieve and
is vented to atmosphere along with all the impurities collected during operation. Since regen-
eration takes places at substantially lower pressure and much higher temperature advantages of
both pressure and thermal swing are gained.

7.2.6 E XTRACTED NATURAL GAS FLOW

Extraction of gas occurs right after purification. Roughly 3% of natural gas is extracted. Scheme
of flow is shown in figure Its temperature at point 1 is 220 K and pressure is 4 MPa. After
that, depending on whether bed requires heating or cooling it is routed through heat exchanger
(E3) or directly to the bed (F1). When flowing through heat exchanger gas is heated to 220ºC.
Otherwise state at the point 2 is the same like at point 1. During flow through bed some pressure
drop occur. Both temperature and pressure at the point 3 vary. Temperature may range from
470 K at the end of heating to 220 K at the end of cooling. Compressor F2 is used to restore
pressure to the level of 6,5 MPa at the point 4. There gas may be reinjected into the main stream.

7.2.7 M AIN HEAT EXCHANGER

Exchanger of this type are not used often in LNG installations. Therefore detailed description
is required.Total heat transfer in exchanger is given by following equation:

Q̇t = Q̇st + Q̇bt + Q̇ct + Q̇ pt (14)

Q̇st , Q̇bt , Q̇ct , Q̇ pt are there heat flux present in different parts of heat exchanger. These are
respectively subcooling part, where methane is in liquid state and nitrogen is boiling, stage

45
where both fluids are changing phase, stage in which methane condensates when cooled by
gaseous nitrogen and finally stage where both methane and nitrogen are gaseous. Heat transfer
has been calculated on the basis of temperatures of the walls. For each stage they have been
calculated so the following general equation is valid:

Q̇g = Q̇c = Q̇n (15)

Q̇g , Q̇c , Q̇n are there respectively heat flux to natural gas, conductive heat transfer through
the walls of exchanger and heat flux from nitrogen. Formula for conductive heat transfer is the
same for each stage and this is:

kAl · (Te − Ti )
qc = (16)
t
qc is there heat transfer per unit of area, kAl is thermal conductivity of aluminium, Te and Ti
are the temperatures of external and internal wall of pipe and t is the thickness of the wall. Total
heat transfer due to conduction is obtained by multiplying this value by the area of pipes. Heat
transfer to and from fluids changes with the state of fluid.
In subcooling stage heat transfer to nitrogen is assumed to be the sum of heat flux due to
nucleate boiling and forced convection. Nucleate boiling heat flux is given by the following
formula:
 1/2  3
g (ρl − ρg ) Cp · (Ti − Tn )
qnb = µl h · the (17)
σn C · h · Prn
µl is dynamic viscosity of liquid nitrogen, h is heat of vaporisation of nitrogen, g is standard
gravity, ρl and ρg are density of liquid nitrogen and density of gaseous nitrogen respectively, σn
is the surface tension of liquid/vapor interface, Cp is heat capacity of nitrogen, Tn is temperature
of vaporisation of nitrogen, C and n are constants dependant on type of fluid and surface and Pr
is Prandtl number of liquid nitrogen. Prandtl number is obtained by the following formula:
Cp · µl
Pr = (18)
kn
where kn is heat conductivity of nitrogen. In order to obtain forced internal convection heat
flux calculations of Reynolds and Nusselt numbers have to be performed:
ρn · un · Di
Ren = (19)
µn
All values labelled with n are local values for nitrogen. Di is internal diameter of pipe,
u is velocity of nitrogen. This formula for Reynolds number of nitrogen is valid in all the
following considerations. Since in case of this part of heat exchanger flow is laminar, and
surface temperature can be assumed constant, following values and equations will be used:
κn · Di
Nun = = 3, 66 (20)
kn

qnc = κn · (Ti − Tn ) (21)

Substituting those equations:

Nun · kn · (Ti − Tn )
qnc = (22)
Di

46
 Total heat transfer to boiling nitrogen:

Q̇nt = Ai · (qnc + qnb ) (23)

Pressure drop is described by this equation:

Ls µn · u2n
∆pn = fn · (24)
Di 2
Ls is here the length of considered stage of heat exchanger. fn is friction factor and in case
of laminar flow is given by the following formula:
64
fn = (25)
Ren
Natural gas obeys forced external convection relations. Both Prandtl and Reynolds num-
ber are calculated analogically to nitrogen. In considered Reynolds number range formula for
Nusselt number takes the following form:
1/3
Nug = 0, 193Re0,618
g · Prg (26)
Formula for heat flux:
Nug · kg · ∆Tg
qg = (27)
De
Total natural gas heat transfer in first stage of heat exchanger:

Q̇gt = Ae · qg (28)
In the first condensation stage relation for nucleate boiling of nitrogen remains the same.
Since transition to turbulent flow occurs in this stage of exchanger, formulas concerning forced
convection heat transfer will change. Friction factor depends on Reynolds number according to
the following formula:

fn = (0, 79 · ln(Ren ) − 1, 64)−2 (29)

Nusselt number of nitrogen is defined by means of this factor, and Reynolds and Prandtl
number.
1/3
Nun = 0, 125 fn Ren Prn (30)
In this part of heat exchanger natural gas condenses completely. Heat transfer occurs ac-
cording to relations for film condensation over horizontal tube bank.

3 !1/4
g(ρgl − ρgg ) · hg + 0, 68Cpgl (Tg − Te ) · kgl
κg = 0, 729 (31)
µgl · (Tg − Te ) · n
Temperature difference between natural gas and pipe surface is generally constant, there-
fore:

qg = κg · (Tg − Te ) (32)
In the second condensation stage nitrogen is gaseous and the flow is turbulent. Therefore
formula will be the same like for convection part of heat transfer in previous stage. Since

47
 Figure 37: Temperature distribution along heat exchanger

temperature of nitrogen is going to vary, and temperature of surface is close to constant, equation
for heat transfer will take following form:
Nun · kn · ∆Tn
qn = (33)
Di
Natural gas condenses according to formulas shown before. In the final stage both flows are
turbulent and obey relations for turbulent flow heat coefficient. Outlet temperature of liquefied
natural gas leaving heat exchanger is 100 K. Changes in pressure are very small, therefore
pressure is assumed to remain at 4 MPa. Size of flows and pressure (and therefore temperature)
of nitrogen have been adjusted so nowhere in heat exchanger freezing temperature of methane
is achieved. This allows to avoid danger of methane ice formation.
Results of calculations have been shown in figures 37 and 38.
On the graphs it may be clearly seen, that most of the heat exchange takes place in the section
where both fluid change phase. Both heat transfer coefficients and temperature difference are
the largest at this part. Increase of nitrogen flow would lead to great reduction at the heat
exchanger size.

7.2.8 P LANT SIZE , OPERATION SCHEDULE AND ALTERNATIVE CONFIGURATIONS

In order to store liquefied gas and ensure supply of nitrogen pressurised tanks will be applied.
Operational range of tank will be assumed to between 90% and 30% of filling. Upper 10%
of reserve will be filled if obstacles in delivery of liquid nitrogen will be expected. 30% of
lower reserve will be used in emergency situations. There will be two nitrogen tanks, each
with 55785 l of volume. Operational pressure will be 4 bar. Height of such tank is 13 m, its
width is 2,95 m. Such diameters make them possible to be normally transported by truck. To
store liquefied natural gas two 35000 l tanks will be applied. Their operational pressure will be
4 MPa.
Range of application of such plant is determined by size of flow and composition of pro-
cessed gas. Twister is a part which is the most sensitive to changes in flow size. It cannot

48
 Figure 38: Heat flux along exchanger

perform well if flow is 10% above or below designed value. It is also vulnerable to damages
done by particles of dust. Therefore their amount must not exceed removal capacity of inlet
receiving. Content of water should be low enough to allow combustion of fuel in gas turbine.
That means that majority of water would be adsorbed on molecular sieves. Size of molecular
sieves limits amount of impurities that may be adsorbed. Flow size should be adjusted so it
would pass purification stage for long enough time for complete adsorption to occur. The other
constraint is size of heat exchanger. Both nitrogen and natural gas flow should be set so methane
will be completely liquefied and desired level of subcooling will be achieved.
Alternative configurations are possible. It would be feasible to apply Stirling cryocooler in
this installation. However, that would require larger energy input. The other drawback would be
necessity of application of additional purification unit. This is due to the fact that nitrogen serves
both as coolant and purge gas for molecular sieves. Harmful products released from them during
regeneration need to be removed from the system. Twister may be replaced with cryogenic
distillation unit. However, this solution would increase cost, but would make installation less
sensitive to changes in flow. Heat exchanger can be replaced in order to save space. That would
make installation more complex and expensive.
The largest part of the plant will be tanks. They will occupy approximately 36 m2 , if stand-
ing vertically. Processing part of installation will take approximately 20 m2 , mostly due to the
length of heat exchanger. Plant can be adjusted to the shape of terrain. In order to disperse
nitrogen and exhaust from gas turbine exhaust stack should be applied. Processing unit can be
contained inside one container 1A. To transport whole installation (with tanks) 5 trucks would
be needed.
As said before, plant would operate in weekly cycle. Every week nitrogen tank would
be refilled and methane tank would be emptied. During this process maintenance would take
place. Fuel tank for gas turbine would be checked and refilled if needed. Tanks for slug would
be emptied. Visual check of all systems may be performed then as well. Once in year larger
check of installation would be performed. Preferred period for this would be during summer,
when demand for gas is lower and nitrogen usage is higher. All piping and tanks would be
checked for leakages. Molecular sieves would replaced if required. Inlet receiving would be
then cleaned inside.

49
8 C ONCLUSIONS

All processes required in processing of natural gas before liquefaction have been identified.
Both purification and dehydration methods have been listed. Types of units applicable in small
installations have been pointed and described. Applicability of main liquefaction methods have
been rated. Proposal of small installation for field production of LNG have been created.
It has been shown that is possible to produce liquefied natural gas in small installations using
liquid nitrogen. Such solution has some major advantages over alternative designs. Usage of
nitrogen as both coolant and purge gas allows to drop complex units for removal of sulfur and
carbon dioxide. This reduces cost, size and complexity of installation. It is possible to couple
usage of surplus nitrogen from metallurgical works with production of LNG. All electrical
energy used by installation is produced on-site, therefore it is independent from local power
lines. Usage of thermal energy is optimised. All hot and cold streams have been coupled so
there is no need for external cooling or heating.
Proposed design complies with all requirements defined at the introduction. Indeed it is
capable of operating automatically. Only once per week it will be maintained and refilled.
Besides removal of LNG and delivery of methane no other activities have to be done. All vital
operational characteristics can be handled by automatic system. Usage of the simplest possible
technologies allows to avoid introduction of any dangerous chemicals. Fire safety is ensured by
disconnecting the only fire source, which is the gas turbine, from the main methane processing
line. The only high temperature heat exchanger for methane is with nitrogen, which even in
case of leak would serve as a fire extinguisher.
Chosen technologies are reliable and resistant to wear. External conditions have minor effect
on the performance of plant. Plant is compact and adjustable. Treatment of any gases besides
methane is avoided. There are no units for neither nitrogen nor helium processing. Most of the
gas flow in the plant is driven by the pressure from the reservoir. The only device with moving
parts is the gas turbine block. Product meets all standards and can be delivered to receivers
without any further treatment.
In order to prove feasibility of whole model of distributed natural gas production economical
analysis should be performed. The main competitor for LNG as medium of transportation of
natural gas from distributed installation would be CNG. However, production of this requires
much higher energy input for compression. Therefore LNG production installation with liquid
nitrogen seems to be optimal solution. In order to fully utilise the potential of such installations
it would be needed to create receiving infrastructure, with regasifiers and receiving stations
spread close to customers.

50
9 R EFERENCES

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52
 B6

C2
B7 B5

A2 B1 B2 B3B4
C1 C3 C4

A3

A1

F2

A4
D1
E1

E2

E3

D2

E4 F1

D5

D3 D4

Installation for the field liquefaction

of natural gas using liquid nitrogen

Author Łukasz Tomków

 A PPENDIX 2
M ARKINGS ON THE SCHEME OF INSTALLATION

Part mark English name Polish name

A1 Safety valve Zawór bezpieczeństwa
A2 Demister Odemglacz
A3 Scrubber Separator faz
A4 Liquid tank Zbiornik fazy ciekłej
B1 Guiding vanes Kierownice
B2 De Laval nozzle Dysza de Lavala
B3 Cyclone separator Cyklon
B4 Diffuser Dyfuzor
B5 Heat exchanger Wymiennik ciepła
B6 Hydrocarbons tank Zbiornik w˛eglowodorów
B7 Expansion valve Zawór rozpr˛eżajacy
˛
C1 Gas turbine compressor Kompresor turbiny gazowej
C2 Gas turbine burner Komora spalania
C3 Gas turbine Turbina gazowa
C4 Electric generator Generator elektryczny
D1 Methane precooler Wst˛epna chłodnica metanu
D2 Operational molecular sieve Oczyszczajace
˛ sito molekularne
D3 Main heat exchanger Główny wymmienik ciepła
D4 Expansion valve Zawór rozpr˛eżajacy
˛
D5 LNG tank Zbiornik LNG
E1 Nitrogen tank Zbiornik azotu
E2 Flue gas/nitrogen heat exchanger Wymiennik ciepła spaliny/azot
E3 Extracted gas heater Podgrzewacz gazu upustowego
E4 Regenerated bed Regenerowane złoże
F1 Heated bed Grzane złoże
F2 Extracted gas compressor Spr˛eżarka gazu upustowego

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