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Inquiry, Investigation, and Immersion

First Period; Applied Subject

Chapter 1 to Chapter 4
Guidelines on Choosing a Topic
o Interest in the Subject Matter
o Richness of Available Sources of Supporting Evidences
o Timeliness and Relevance of the Topic
o Limitations of the Subject
o Personal Resources

Steps that will guide you to trim-down your area of interest

o Focus on the track/strand/area of specialization;
o Recall the specific area, lesson, or issue in your respective field
o Generate an unanswered question or an unresolved problem based on the guidelines
above
o Assess the question or problem based on the five guidelines
o Write your research problem

Guideline for Research Title-making

o Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study;
o Limited to 10-15 substantive words where conjunctions, prepositions, and articles are not
allowed
o Do not include an analysis of, study of
o Should be in phrase form
o Avoid too much information to the title

Background of the study

Explanation of the context of study which involves current data or status of the problem; Guidelines
and Outlines in writing the background of the study are below
o It should clearly state the reason for conducting a study
o It should be more from broad to specific
o It should state the current condition of the research problem

o Discuss the topic in general start, from holistic or world perspective

o Insert a condition that is directly related to the topic and to the focus of your study
o Identify the factors contributing to the focus of your study
o State the current condition of the topic in your school or locale
o State the reason why you chose to study the topic

Statement of the Problem

Guide people towards a better understanding on phenomena, human behavior etc. Two parts:
General Statement, objective; Specific research questions
• Guidelines in Formulating Specific Questions
o Begin with what and how for qualitative and why in quantitative
o Focus on a single phenomenon or concept
o Exploratory and non-directional for qualitative and directional verbs for quantitative
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o Research questions may evolve or change during the study

o Use open-ended questions for qualitative
o Specify the participants and the research site/location

Hypothesis
Preconceived idea, assumed to be true and is tested for its truth or falsity; Two types: Null Hypothesis
indicates that there is no significant difference or relationship between specified population; and
Alternative Hypothesis states that there is a significant difference or relationship between specified
populations

Definition of Terms
Lists down and defines the key term used in the study in alphabetical order; operational definition
refers to a specific definition of concept in a research study

Literature, in the context of research, refers to a collection of published information or materials on

a particular area of research or topic, such as books and journals of academic value; Literature
Review, a process of studying what has already been written on a particular topic
• Goals of Literature Review
o To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and stablish credibility
o To show the path of prior research and how a current project is linked to it
o To integrate and summarize what is known in an area
o To learn from others and stimulate new ideas

• Five Basic Criteria

o Accuracy: Is the information reliable, error-free, and based on proven facts?
o Authentic: Who is the author?
o Objectivity: What is the intended purpose of the study?
o Currency: When was the information published?
o Coverage: Does the information covered meet your information needs?

Citations, are set of rules on how to cite academic writing; whenever you refer to someone else’s
work, a citation is required in order to avoid plagiarism
• Importance of Citation
o It is helpful for anyone who wants to find out more about your ideas and where they
come from
o Citing sources shows the amount of research you’re done
o Citing sources strengthens your work by lending outside support to your ideas
o It is a basis of authenticity of one’s study
o It ensures the ethical and academic honesty of someone’s work it reveals the
sources of information and knowledge
o It served as a legal basis in crafting the body of your study

Styles of Citation
o Modern Language Association (MLA). Widely used in the Humanities like in English
Language, Literature, Arts, and Philosophy

o American Psychological Association (APA). Widely use in Social Sciences such as

Anthropology, Business, Communication, Education, Political Science, and Psychology;
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APA Referencing, used often whenever you summarize paraphrase or quote information
from another sources; Reference Page, lists of all the sources you have cited in your paper
or manuscript; Bibliography, helps the researcher keep track of the sources they consulted
or cited

o Chicago Manual of Style. Introduced by Chicago University that supports two style: Notes
and Bibliography; and Author-date

• Various ways on crafting Reference List of your Research Paper (tinatamad na ako)
o Books
o Encyclopedia and Dictionary
o Magazine and Newspaper
o Website or webpage

• Ethical Relativism posits that ethical principles vary depending on cultural, societal
or individual perspectives, meaning there are no universal moral truths
• Ethical Principles are fundamental norms or rules that guide ethical behavior and
decision-making
• Ethical Dilemma refers to a situation where a person is faced with conflicting moral
choices and whichever decision they make may compromise another ethical
principle or value; involves two or more morally justifiable options, making it
challenging to determine the best course of action

Chapter 5: Synthesizing the Review of Related Literature

A synthesis must also be evaluated and weighed critically. It also gives an integration
of information from different sources to highlight important points of connection and
relatedness, to address similarities and differences and draw conclusion. Synthesizing a
collection of RRL combines parts and elements from a variety of sources into one unified and
integrated entity.

Steps on how to synthesize a Review of

Related Literature
1. Digest the material and
understand the content of the
sources. In this process, you have to
determine and identify similarities
among the articles by group in
terms of concepts, patterns, and
relationship. You may ask these
questions within yourself.
• Did the author used similar
conceptual and theoretical
framework, sample participants, methodologies, or instruments and procedures
to collect data?
• How and in what way are the findings similar?
• Are there any studies that served as an extension of another study?

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2. Review and critically analyze the sources. This second step may determine the
differences and contradictions among the articles by group. You can ask these
questions to yourself.
• Did the authors used different conceptual and theoretical framework, sample
participants, methodologies, or instruments and procedures to collect data?
• How and in what ways are the findings different and contradictory?

3. Synthesize the content of the information that you have gathered. It means going
beyond your critique to determine the relationships or patterns among sources,
identifying then comparing and contrasting common concepts or themes. This step
determines general observations and conclusions about each topic given the
relationship inferred from the group of articles within each topic. It also determines the
existence of any reoccurring concepts, relationships, patterns, or themes and if any
of these are in need of further inquiry.
Note: A key element to make a good synthesis of review of related literature is the integration,
which is about making connections between and among ideas and concepts. It is about
applying what you have researching within a larger framework, thereby providing you a new
way of looking onto a phenomenon.

Chapter 7: Population and Sampling Methods

Quantitative researchers like you are often interested in being able to make generalizations
about groups larger than their study samples. While there are certainly instances when quantitative
researchers rely on nonprobability samples (e.g., when doing exploratory or evaluation research),
quantitative researchers tend to rely on probability sampling techniques. The goals and techniques
associated with probability samples differ from those of nonprobability samples.
• Population. It is any complete group (i.e., people, sales territories, stores, etc.) sharing a
common set of characteristics. It can be defined as including all people or items with the
characteristic one wish to understand and draw inferences about them.
• Sample. It is a subset or a part of a larger population. It is “a smaller (but hopefully
representative) collection of units from a population used to determine truths about that
population” (Creswell, 2015).
• Sampling is a statistical procedure that is concerned with the selection of certain individual
observation from the target population. It helps in making statistical inferences about the
population.
• Sampling design refers to the technique or procedure used by the researcher for selecting
items as samples from the population or universe.

The method by which you select the sample is the sampling method. Again, there are two
essential types of sampling methods: (1) probability sampling which is based on chance events
(such as random numbers, flipping a coin etc.); and (2) nonprobability sampling which is based on
researcher's choice, population that is accessible and available.
Probability samples are a type of sample wherein members of the population have equal
chance to be selected as subject in the research.

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• Simple random sample. Every member of the population has a known and equal
chance of being selected.
• Stratified random sample. Population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such as
age groups and random samples are drawn from each group.
• Cluster (area) sample. The population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such
as blocks, and the researcher draws a sample of the group to interview.
• Systematic sampling is where every case after a random selection is selected. For
example, if surveying a sample of consumers, every fifth consumer may be selected
from your sample. The advantage of this sampling technique is its simplicity.

Non-probability sampling refers to sampling techniques for which a person’s (or event’s or
researcher’s focus) likelihood of being selected for membership in the sample is unknown.
Because we do not know the likelihood of selection, we do not know with non-probability
samples whether a sample represents a larger population or not.
• Purposive sample, a type of nonprobability sample that seeks out research
participants who will cover the full range of perspectives; include only people who
meet very narrow or specific criteria.
• Snowball sampling is a strategy which is useful when a researcher wishes to study
some stigmatized group or behavior; Snowball sampling is sometimes referred to as
chain referral sampling; a chain of potential participants is identified; because the
group may be relatively rare.
• Quota sampling is another nonprobability sampling strategy. This type of sampling
is actually employed by both qualitative and quantitative researchers; a researcher
identifies categories that are important to the study and for which there is likely to
have variation.
• Convenience Sampling, simply collects data from those people or other relevant
elements to which he or she has most convenient access.

Chapter 8: Data Collection Procedure

Statistics is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, presentation,
interpretation, and conclusion of data, while biostatistics is a branch of statistics, where statistical
techniques are used on biomedical data to reach a conclusion. Measurement scale (data type) is
an important part of data collection, analysis, and presentation.

Data presentation is an important step to communicate our information and findings to the
audience and readers in an effective way. If done properly, they not only reduce word count
but also convey an important message in a meaningful way so that the readers can grasp it
easily.

Data are a collection of facts such as values or measurements. It can be numbers, words,
measurements, observations, or even just descriptions of things. Basically, data are two types:
constant and variable.
• Constant is a situation or value that does not change, while a characteristic, number, or
quantity that increases or decreases over time or takes different values in different situations
is called variable. Due to unchangeable property, constant is not used and only variable is
used for summary measures and analysis.
• A variable is, as the name applies, something that varies. Age, sex, export, income and
expenses, family size, country of birth, capital expenditure, class grades, blood pressure
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readings, preoperative anxiety levels, eye color, and vehicle type are all examples of
variables because each of these properties varies or differs from one individual to another.
There are five types of variables in terms of research methodology as follows:
o The variable, value of which affects the value of another variable is known as
independent variable.
o The variable, value of which may change due to change in the value of another
variable is called dependent variable.
o The variable that affects the cause-a nd-effect relationship between these two
variables is called moderator variable.
o Next, If the effect of such variables that can affect the cause-and-effect
relationship of dependent and
independent variable, is
eliminated, it is called controlled
variable.
o Lastly, any such variable is called
intervening variable, that may
affect the cause-and-effect
relationship of dependent and
independent variables but either
cannot be measured clearly or is
to be ignored during research;
any moderator variable, that
cannot be measured or observed clearly or ignored is called intervening variable.

Qualitative data collection methods are exploratory in nature and are mainly concerned with
gaining insights and understanding on underlying reasons and motivations. Qualitative data
collection methods emerged after it has become known that traditional quantitative data
collection methods were unable to express human feelings and emotions.
Monette et al (2010) credit qualitative methods with the acknowledgement of abstraction and
generalization. Polonsky and Waller (2011) categorize vision, images, forms and structures in
various media, as well as spoken and printed word, and recorded sound into qualitative data
collection methods.
Qualitative research data collection methods are time consuming. Therefore, data is
usually collected from a smaller sample than would be the case for
quantitative approaches.
Qualitative data collection methods are exploratory, and usually more focused on gaining
insights and understanding the underlying reasons by digging deeper.

Most common methods used for qualitative data collection

1. Interviews can be:
a. Unstructured
• Can be referred to as 'depth' or 'in depth' interviews.
• They have very little structure at all.
• The interviewer may just go with the aim of discussing a limited number of topics,
sometimes as few as just one or two.
• The interviewer may frame the interview questions based on the interviewee and
his/her previous response.

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• This allows the discussion to cover areas in great detail.

• They involve the researcher wanting to know or find out more about a specific
topic without there being a structure or a preconceived plan or expectation as to
how they will deal with the topic.
b. Semi structured
• Semi structured interviews are sometimes also called focused interviews.
• A series of open-ended questions based on the topic areas the researcher wants
to cover.
• A series of broad questions to ask and may have some prompts to help the
interviewee.
• 'The open-ended nature of the question defines the topic under investigation but
provides opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to discuss some topics
in more detail.
• Semi structured interviews allow the researcher to prompt or encourage the
interviewee if they are looking for more information or find what they are saying
interesting.
• This method gives the researcher the freedom to probe the interviewee to
elaborate or to follow a new line of inquiry introduced by what the interviewee is
saying.
• Work best when the interviewed has a number of areas he/she wants to be sure to
be addressing.
c. Structured
• The interviewer asks the respondent the same questions in the same way.
• A tightly structured schedule is used.
• The questions may be phrased in order that a limited range of responses may be
given(i.e. Do you rate our services as very good, good or poor?).
• A researcher needs to consider whether a questionnaire or structured interview is
more appropriate.
• If the interview schedule is too tightly structured this may not enable the
phenomena under investigation to be explored in terms of either breadth or depth.

2. Focus groups. The use of focus groups is sometimes used when it is better to obtain information
from a group rather than individuals.
a. Limited resources (time, manpower, finances)
b. The phenomena being researched requires a collective discussion in order to
understand the circumstances, behavior or opinions.
c. Greater insights may be developed of the group dynamic or cause and
consequence.

Characteristics of a focus group

• Recommended size of the sample group is 6 - 10 people as smaller groups may limit
the potential on the amount of information collected.
• Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and macro view
of the investigation (i.e., focusing on one group may give you idiosyncratic results).
• Members of the focus group should have something in common which is important
to the investigation.

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• Groups can either be put together or existing groups. It is always useful to be mindful
of the group dynamics of both situations.

This method requires the researcher to use a range of skills:

• group skills
• facilitating
• moderating
• listening/observing
• analysis

3. Observation involves may take place in natural settings and involves the researcher taking
lengthy and descriptive notes of what is happening.
a. It is argued that there are limits to the situations that can be observed in their 'natural'
settings and that the presence of the research may lead to problems with validity.
Limitations with observation include:
a. Change in people's behavior when they know they are being observed.
b. A 'snapshot' view of a whole situation
c. Think big brother...
d. The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking
notes.
e. The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or
misunderstand what has been observed.
Strengths of observation:
a. Can offer a flavor for what is happening
b. Can give an insight into the bigger picture
c. Can demonstrate sub-groups.
d. Can be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research

Detailed Documentation Techniques for collecting data through observation:

1. Written descriptions
a. The researcher makes written descriptions of the people, situations or environment.
b. Limitations include:
o Researcher might miss out on an observation as they are taking notes.
o The researcher may be focused on a particular event or situation.
o There is room for subjective interpretation of what is happening.
2. Video recording
a. Allows the researcher to also record notes.
b. Limitations may include people acting unnaturally towards the camera or others
avoiding the camera.
c. The camera may not always see everything.
3. Photographs and artefacts
a. Useful when there is a need to collect observable information or phenomena such as
buildings, neighborhoods, dress and appearance.
b. Artefacts include objects of significance like memorabilia, instruments, tools,etc.

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4. Documentation (Source)
Any and all kinds of documentation may be used to provide information like a local paper,
information on a notice board, administrative policies and procedures, etc. previous research,
even.

Data Collection Procedure for Qualitative Input

The process of data collection follows the identification of the sample. Data collection can
take the form of direct data or indirect data. Direct data include recordable spoken or written
words and observable body language, actions and interactions. Here, the interactions may be
human-to-human or human responses to inanimate objects such as a hemodialysis machine.
Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involves:
• direct interaction with individuals on a one-to-one basis;
• or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting.

Whatever can be observed or communicated are considered to be potential or actual

data. This will occur when considering the thoughts, feelings, experiences, meaning of experience,
responses, actions, interactions, language, and processes of individuals and groups within their
social and/or cultural setting. It is this type of data that sets the context of qualitative studies. Indirect
data are generated, in the first instance, by someone or something else, such as with documents
or photographs reporting an event or an artistic rendition of an event or experience (e.g., novels,
songs, paintings, poems, photographs).
o thought
o preparation
o the development of the interview schedule
o conducting and analyzing the interview data with care and consideration

For quantitative research, there are four types of variables: nominal, ordinal, discrete, and
continuous. The first two are called qualitative data and the last two are quantitative data. The first
two (nominal and ordinal) are assessed in terms of words or attributes called qualitative data,
whereas discrete and continuous variables are part of the quantitative data.

Quantitative variable is the data that show some quantity through numerical value. Quantitative
data are the numeric variables (e.g., how many, how much, or how often). Age, blood pressure,
body temperature, hemoglobin level, and serum creatinine level are some examples of
quantitative data. It is also called metric data. It has two types: discrete and continuous.
o Discrete variable is the quantitative data, but its values cannot be expressed or presented
in the form of a decimal. For example, number of males, number of females, number of
patients, and family size are data that cannot be expressed in decimal points.
o Continuous data are measured in values and can be quantified and presented in
decimals. Age, height, weight, body mass index, serum creatinine, heart rate, systolic blood
pressure, and diastolic blood pressure are some examples.

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest in
an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes; determining what kind of data required followed by the
selection of a sample from a certain population; process of gathering information on variables of
interest from a sample of research participants.

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Two types of data collection

Primary data collection refers to data that is collected from research participants directly by the
investigators of a study and the data is used for that study.
o Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform logical study to
collect data. Experiments are more suitable for medicine, psychological studies,
nutrition, and for other scientific studies. In experiments, the experimenter must keep
control over the influence of any extraneous variable on the results.
o Survey is the most commonly used method in social sciences, management, marketing,
and psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different methods.
o Questionnaire is the most commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are list of
questions either open-ended or close-ended for which the respondents give answers.
Questionnaire can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an
institute, through electronic mail or through online platforms and other methods.
o Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In interview the main
problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise it is an in-
depth source of information. The interviewer can not only record the statements the
interviewee speaks.
• Secondary data collection refers to data that is collected by investigators from research
papers that are already published online. Secondary data is used by these investigators in a
secondary research study (e.g., review of primary research). Examples are: Books, Records,
Biographies, Newspapers, Published censuses or other statistical data, Data archives , Internet
articles, Research articles by other researchers (journals), Databases, etc.

Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal scale, ordinal
scale, interval scale and ratio scale. It is numerical in nature and can be mathematically
computed. Often (not always), such data includes measurements of something. Quantitative
approaches address the ‘what’ of the study. They use a systematic standardized approach and
employ methods such as surveys and ask questions. Quantitative approaches have the
advantage that they are cheaper to implement, are standardized so comparisons can be easily
made, and the size of the effect can usually be measured.

The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce
results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. If the intent is to generalize from the
research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to
select participants.

There are two main quantitative data collection methods:

• Surveys: Traditionally, surveys were conducted using paper-based methods and have
gradually evolved into online mediums. Closed-ended questions form a major part of these
surveys as they are more effective in collecting quantitative data.
o Longitudinal Studies are types of observational research in which the market
researcher conducts surveys from a specific time period to another (i.e., over a
considerable course of time, is called longitudinal survey). This survey is often
implemented for trend analysis or studies where the primary objective is to collect and
analyze a pattern in data.

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o Cross-sectional Studies are types of observational research in which the market

research conducts surveys at a particular time period across the target sample is
known as cross-sectional survey. This survey type implements a questionnaire to
understand a specific subject from the sample at a definite time period.

To administer a survey to collect quantitative data, the below principles are to be followed.
• Fundamental levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales). There are
four measurement scales which are fundamental to creating a multiple-choice question in
a survey in collecting quantitative data. They are, nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
measurement scales without the fundamentals of which, no multiple-choice questions can
be created.
• Use of different question types. To collect quantitative data, close-ended questions have
to be used in a survey. They can be a mix of multiple question types including multiple-
choice questions like semantic differential scale questions, rating scale questions etc. that
can help collect data that can be analyzed and made sense of.
• Survey distribution and survey data collection. In the above, we have seen the process of
building a survey along with the survey design to collect quantitative data. Survey
distribution to collect data is the other important aspect of the survey process. There are
different ways of survey distribution. Some of the most commonly used methods are:
o e-mail
o sample size
o embedding a survey
o social distribution
• One-on-one Interviews. This quantitative data collection method was also traditionally
conducted face-to-face but has shifted to telephonic and online platforms. There are three
major sections of these online interviews:
o face-to-face interviews
o online or telephonic interviews
o computer assisted personal interview

Data Collection Procedure for Quantitative Input

It is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements. Whether you are
performing research for business, governmental, or academic purposes, data collection allows
you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

Before you begin collecting data, you need to consider:

• the aim of the research;
• the type of data that you will collect; and
• the methods and procedures you will use to collect, store, and process the data.

To collect high-quality data that is relevant to your purposes, follow these four steps.
o Step 1: Define the aim of your research. Before you start the process of data collection, you
need to identify exactly what you want to achieve. You can start by writing a problem
statement: what is the practical or scientific issue that you want to address and why does
it matter?

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o Step 2: Develop operational definitions and procedures. What are we measuring? How will
it be measured? Who will measure it? Having clarity in these questions is of utmost
importance. Often, we will employ sampling in which case we need to define a sampling
plan.
o Step 3: Choose more than one data collection technique. There is no “best” tool. Do not
let the tool drive your work but rather choose the right tool to address the evaluation
question.
o Step 4: Begin to collect your data.

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