1345

Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 83, No. 8, 2020, Pages 1345–1358

https://doi.org/10.4315/JFP-19-526
Copyright Ó, International Association for Food Protection

Review

Street Food, Food Safety, and Regulation: What is the Panorama

in Colombia?: A Review
CLAUDIA PATRÍCIA ALVAREZ CONTRERAS,1* RYZIA DE CASSIA VIEIRA CARDOSO,1 LIS NERY NUNES DA SILVA,2
AND RAFAEL EMILIO GONZALEZ CUELLO3

1School of Nutrition, Federal University of Bahia, Rua Basílio da Gama, S/N, Canela, CEP 40110-907, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil (ORCID: https://orcid.org/
0000-0002-1944-407X [C.P.A.C.]); 2Pharmacy Faculty, Federal University of Bahia, Avenida Barão de Geremoabo, S/N, Ondina, CEP 40170-115
Salvador, Bahia, Brazil; and 3Engineering Faculty, University of Cartagena, Piedra de Bolívar, Avenida del Consulado, Calle 30, no. 48-157, Cartagena de
Índias, Colombia
MS 19-526: Received 4 November 2019/Accepted 26 March 2020/Published Online 27 March 2020

ABSTRACT
Public management of street food is a challenge in many countries. In Colombia, despite the extent of the economic, social,
and food contributions of the segment and the concern from the public health perspective, the amount of research on the subject
still remains insufficient. Thus, this study aimed to establish a panorama of the street food trade in Colombia, considering its
mode of operation, food security, and regulatory context, based on the scientific literature published between 2000 and 2018. A
literature review was carried out in the Medline, SciELO, LILACS, Scopus, Redalyc, and Google Scholar databases, as well as
in the University of Colombia’s institutional repositories and scientific books. A set of 19 publications were selected and
evaluated for three dimensions—work and culture, food safety, and regulation—according to the objectives and methodologies
applied. In category 1, relative to work and culture, five studies were retrieved (26.3%), highlighting the economic and social
contribution of the sector and the protection of food cultural heritage. Category 2, referring to hygiene and microbiological
safety in the activity, covers 11 publications (57.9%) and comprised the largest research field of interest in the country. Among
the food pathogens surveyed, Salmonella spp. were the most investigated, registering nonconformity in the samples (6.55%).
Category 3, with three articles (15.8%), covered public policies and regulation of the segment, highlighting the challenges to
regulating the sector and the need for intersectional articulation in administrative policies. The results confirm both the relevance
of the segment to food security and the concern with microbiological hazards, demanding strategies to improve its regulation
and functioning in the country, with the aim of protecting the health of consumers.

HIGHLIGHTS

A panorama of the street food in Colombia is presented, based on 19 publications.

Three dimensions were evaluated: work and culture, food safety, and regulation.

Street food means work, nutrition, and patrimony; however, there is a scarcity of scientific data.

Several food groups studied had significant levels of pathogenic microorganisms.

Regulation of the sector is complex and needs intersectoral articulation.

Key words: Food hygiene; Food security; Health surveillance; Informal food sector; Public policies

Public management of the street food segment is a
challenge in many countries. Despite the cultural and
historical contributions of the activity, the economic
potential involved, and the wide and diverse range of foods
available to the population, there still are many obstacles to
achieving food and nutritional security principles (16, 29).
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations, street food is defined as “foods and
beverages prepared and/or sold by vendors in streets and
other public places for immediate consumption or con-
sumption at a later time without further processing or
* Author for correspondence. Tel: (00**55-71) 32837719; E-mail:
claupalcon@hotmail.com.
preparation.” This definition also includes fresh fruits and
vegetables sold outside authorized commercial areas (28).
Street food trade is common worldwide, especially in
countries where unemployment is high, wages are low, and
job opportunities are limited. The activity also involves
groups excluded from society, forming one of their main
survival strategies (29). In addition, it is attractive for
tourists, since it reveals and preserves the characteristic
food culture of a region or country (32, 35, 37).
In this context, since 1989, the Food and Agriculture
Organization of The United Nations and, later, the World
Health Organization recognized the benefits and problems
associated with street food—their socioeconomic and
cultural importance and public health concerns. In addition,
1346 ALVAREZ CONTRERAS ET AL.
they identified the potential that any restrictions imposed by
health authorities on the accessibility of street foods could
contribute to a risk of increased malnutrition and hunger,
also aggravating the socioeconomic conditions of the
vendors, especially in developing countries (28, 66).
From the perspective of food safety, however, it should
be pointed out that several studies carried out in African,
Asian, and Latin American countries have shown health
risks, considering the presence of pathogens in food
commercialized in the streets (39, 40, 43, 47, 57).
Colombia has its historical and cultural peculiarities,
with street food trade also being common throughout its
diverse cities. The activity is characterized by the offer of
cut fruits, juices, arepas (a kind of corn tortilla, fried or
baked), empanadas, cheese, chorizo, and sandwiches,
among others. However, due to the nature of the food and
given the precarious operating conditions, the products
traded present a high risk of exposure to external
contaminants, such as dust, insects, and smoke, among
others. Also, by remaining at ambient temperature for a long
time, the foods present favorable conditions for microbial
growth (6, 7, 8, 44, 51, 61).
Another noteworthy aspect is the location of the points
of sale, usually around streets and squares, which
contributes both to the invasion of public space and to the
inadequate management of solid and liquid waste, affecting
the urban environment. Many outlets also lack running
water, which is of concern since many food preparation
procedures happen on the spot (9).
In developing countries, as in the cities of Colombia,
the rights of street food vendors to the use of public space
are largely unstable (16). In Colombia, in order to occupy
the public space, Resolution no. 604/1993 from the Ministry
of Health establishes that the handler or vendor must obtain
sanitary authorization for operation, registration, and
control of previous permission by the competent authorities
(23). One restriction of this legislation, however, is that it is
limited to licensed sellers, excluding unauthorized sellers,
who work on the streets (9).
Given the importance of street food in the country, the
challenges of food safety, and the desired regulation of the
sector, this study aimed to establish a panorama on the street
food trade in Colombia, considering its way of functioning,
food safety, and regulatory contexts, from the scientific
works published between 2000 and 2018 in the area.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A review of the literature on the street food segment in
Colombia from 2000 to 2018 was carried out. Data collection was
conducted by means of survey and selection of publications
(articles, dissertations, and theses, all peer reviewed) related to the
contents indicated. The time cut was defined as from the 2000s,
when the country’s interest in such research and the number of
publications increased.
The following databases were used for data collection
purposes: Biblioteca Virtual en Salud Pública de Latinoamérica
(BVS), Biblioteca Virtual para la Vigilancia en Salud Pública de
Colombia (BVS-VSP Col), MEDLINE of PubMed, ScienceDirect,
Biblioteca Digital de Colombia (BDCOL), Scientific Electronic
Library Online (SciELO), Literatura Latinoamericana y del Caribe
J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8
en Ciencias de la Salud (LILACS), Scopus, and Sistema de
Información Científica Redalyc. In addition, Google Scholar was
consulted, as well as the University of Colombia’s institutional
repositories and scientific books.
Publications were selected in Spanish, Portuguese, and
English, with the following descriptors: street food, informal
food, food safety, food, foodborne, hygiene, quality, health
surveillance, regulation, legislation, public food trade, and
Colombia.
As exclusion criteria, works that did not correspond to the
definition of street food according to the World Health
Organization (66) were not considered, as well as publications
that did not address the use of public space. It is worth mentioning
that neither theses nor dissertations that contemplated the object of
study were found.
Thus, initially, the survey considered only original articles. In
addition, an international book (16) was included that contained
two relevant chapters: one referring to a comparative study about
the regulation of street food in Latin American capitals and
another that dealt with the safety of street food in a park in Bogotá,
Capital District (Bogotá, D.C.). This work was incorporated due to
its abundance of information, thus composing the evaluation basis
of this work.
In total, 44 publications were retrieved. Of these, 25 were
excluded, because they did not correspond to the research
objective; they studied commerce in general and the informal
economy in Colombia.
Thus, 19 publications were selected and further analyzed,
considering the following dimensions: temporal distribution;
geographic distribution; objective (dimension of analysis); meth-
odology adopted, with data collection instrument(s); and results.
At the same time, considering the objective of the studies and the
methodological differences identified, the works were grouped in
three categories: (i) street food trade—work and culture; (ii)
hygiene and microbiological safety in the street food trade; and
(iii) street food—public policies and regulation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Among the 19 publications, 9 (47.4%) included
international publications and 10 (52.6%) national ones.
Among the national publications, most were in journals of
lower impact factor, which reveals the need for more robust
studies to reach larger publications domestically and abroad.
Considering the international relevance of the subject,
there was little systematized production in Colombia during
the period. It should be noted that, particularly in
developing countries, this segment comprises a strategy to
cope with high levels of unemployment, as well as a source
of food for the urban population (18, 35, 46, 64).
Chronological distribution of publications from
2000 to 2018. On average, there was one publication per
year, a minimal volume, which can express both fragility in
the field of research in the country and the low concern over
the segment or even the lower attention to the sector by
government bodies, institutions, and/or researchers, which
limits the generation of subsidies for public decision making
directed to the segment.
With regard to the chronological distribution of the
publications, an asymmetry of the scientific production was
observed throughout the period. From 2003, with the first
J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8
publication, an initial interest of researchers on the subject
is perceived. From then on, the publications oscillate,
increasing from 2008 and reaching their peak in 2012, when
three publications were registered.
In this sense, according to the Foodborne Disease
Control and Surveillance Protocol of the National Health
Institute, Ministry of Health, there was an increase in
outbreak reports between 2000 and 2008. Only in 2007 was
a decrease observed, due to changes in the notification
system, which went from being collective to individual (44).
In this context, one of the causes that raised the alert
level on the issue of food safety could be associated with the
increase in the foodborne disease notification records,
drawing the attention of the population to the issues of
food consumption away from home. Thus, this fact may
also have increased the interest of researchers in the issue of
street food safety, since this kind of food is widely
consumed in the country.
Geographic distribution of the studies. Studies were
distributed over different cities and departments, with
research teams based in cities, as shown in Figure 1. In
addition, there was one study conducted by a researcher
from an Italian institution.
There is a predominance of publications from the city
of Bogota, D.C., since it is the capital and the city with the
largest population in Colombia, where the number of higher
education institutions and postgraduate programs is higher
than in other cities. In other cases, there were generally one
to two studies.
It should be noted that, in Colombia, there is still low
investment in science and innovation compared with that in
other countries. An investment of 0.16% of the gross
domestic product for the Scientific and Technological
STREET FOOD IN COLOMBIA 1347
FIGURE 1. Geographic distribution of
street food publications in Colombia, from
2000 to 2018, by cities and departments of
study origin. * Includes multicenter studies
with coordination of teaching institution
and local research; ** Cardoso et al. (16).
Activities of Innovation (ACTI16) has been mandated, a
low level in comparison with international standards, which
reach between 1.00 and 4.80% of those countries’ gross
domestic products (52).
Study descriptions grouped by thematic categories.
Table 1 presents the distribution of the studies by thematic
category and summarizes them considering location,
objectives, methodologies, and results obtained.
Category 1: street food trade—work and culture. In
this category, five studies were analyzed, including that of
Barcos Robles and Pontón (6) of fruit sellers in Cartagena
de Indias, Bolívar. It highlights informality as a response to
unemployment, in a reality that makes workers responsible
for generating their own income and livelihood. In this
sense, it should be emphasized that the sale of food on the
street is one of the main possibilities of economic
participation for low-income families in Colombia (15). In
this way, the activity is recognized as a phenomenon of
social and economic importance, contributing to food and
nutritional security and poverty reduction, which agrees
with reports in other countries (35, 38, 46).
By offering traditional foods and preserving knowledge
and customs related to food and its modalities of sale, street
food is also a way of safeguarding the culture and food
heritage of a region (16). Thus, when characterizing the
sector in the Historic Center of Santa Marta, Magdalena
(45), identity elements were noticed, involving choice of
products, forms of preparation, use of traditional spices,
places and times of sale, and adoption of rules related to
consumption. The author also emphasizes dynamics of
resistance and adaptation at work, as a strategy to safeguard
the daily sustenance.
1348 ALVAREZ CONTRERAS ET AL. J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8

TABLE 1. Distribution of the studies on street food and food safety in Colombia, in the period from 2000 to 2018, grouped by thematic
categories
Category
(no. of Author(s)
studies)a (reference) Place(s) Objective/study theme Methodology(ies) Results

1 (5) Barcos Robles Cartagena Address the issue of Interviews with fruit sellers, Interviewees were adults, aged
and Pontón informality, from the application of semistructured from 30 to 70 years,
(6) socioeconomic questionnaires presenting low schooling
perspective of the level, working 12-h shifts on
Cartagena fruit sellers average; income was
between COL$15,000 (US
$5.22) and COL$50,000 (US
$17.40), and daily expenses
of the activity ranged from
COL$6,000 (US$2.09) to
COL$15,000 (US$5.22),
mainly for transportation
Merlano (45) Santa Marta Address the sociocultural Ethnographic study, with Observation of how sellers
characteristics of sales collection of information in select fruit, often based upon
and street vendors in three stages: (i) survey and specific characteristics of the
the historical center of analysis of references related item and reflecting the
Santa Marta, from the to the restoration of the customs, tastes, and lifestyle
anthropological point of Historic Center of Santa of the people
view, articulating the Marta; (ii) making contacts
dimensions of culture with the informal vendor
and food, subalternity, groups and organizations
informality, resistance, present in the historic center
identification, memory, and holding focus groups;
and semantics of and (iii) systematization and
evaluation and analysis of the information
communication obtained
Botero et al. Neiva and Describe the social Data were obtained through Results indicate the analysis
(12) Cartagena relations established qualitative and quantitative units proposed in social
between informal coffee approaches, based on relations theory can be used
vendors and their observation techniques, to understand the
clients in the cities of interviews, and the interactions between
Neiva and Cartagena application of semistructured informal coffee vendors and
questionnaires their clients, considering (i)
the effective presence of two
recognized actors, (ii)
attendance and permanence
in the interaction that can be
registered and measured, (iii)
the performance of an
exchange activity that
reports a result to each one
of the actors, and (iv) a
course of such interaction
Saldarriaga et Medellín Identify the marketing A structured observation of the The study recognizes that street
al. (53) strategies of street exchange practices and vendors’ intuitive thinking
vendors in the informal literature review was carried gives rise to marketing
economy, evaluating out; the articles were practices, although they lack
how it works, who its searched in the EBSCO academic training; their
actors are, and what database and Google common sense allows them
their characteristics are Scholar, using the terms to develop actions that shape
“popular,” “informal a marketing process
economy,” “solidarity
economy,” “marketing and
sales,” and combinations of
these
J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8 STREET FOOD IN COLOMBIA 1349

TABLE 1. Continued
Category
(no. of Author(s)
studies)a (reference) Place(s) Objective/study theme Methodology(ies) Results

Gómez-Palencia Cartagena Determine the working A checklist was used to 87.8% (512) of the participants
et al. (31) and health conditions of describe the work conditions, were exposed to constant
informal vendors at the and a sample of 584 vendors noise, 84.9% (495) to high
Mercado de Bazurto was formed from 1,210 temperatures, and 74.1%
street market in the city informal market sellers: (432) to suspended
of Cartagena work-related health changes particulate matter, and 69.8%
and neurotoxic-symptom (407) did not use personal
questionnaires (questionnaire protective equipment; on
16) were used, and average, vendors worked 10
nutritional status was h/day, and 71% (414)
evaluated by body mass reported physical exhaustion,
index 72.4% (422) headache,
63.7% (371) back pain, and
62.7% (365) leg pain
2 (11) Durango et al. Cartagena, Establish the frequency of A total of 636 food samples Of the total, 47 samples (7.4%)
(25) Barranquilla, Salmonella spp. in obtained from street fast were positive for Salmonella
Montería, and Colombian Caribbean food in Cartagena, spp., with the main serotypes
Sincelejo food Barranquilla, Montería, and found being S. enterica
Sincelejo were analyzed; the serotypes Anatum (26%),
conventional FDA method Newport (13%),
was used for isolation of the Typhimurium (9%),
bacterium Gaminara (9%), and Uganda
(9%); this study allowed the
distribution of Salmonella
serotypes in food from the
Colombian Atlantic coast to
be established
Espinal Marin et Colombian Establish the presence of Microbiological study of food 74 Salmonella species isolates
al. (26) Caribbean invA invasion gene in control in four cities of the were retrieved in samples of
coast Salmonella species Caribbean region; 300 food meat (30 [40.5%]), sausages
isolates from samples from markets and (13 [17.6%]), chicken (12
Colombian Caribbean street sales were analyzed [16.2%]), cheese (9
food [12.2%]), pork (6 [8.1%]),
and other foods (4 [5.5%]),
with the most frequent
serotypes being S. enterica
serotypes Anatum (14
[18.9%]), Uganda (13
[17.6%]), Newport (9
[12.2%]), and Typhimurium
(7 [9.5%]); in the first invA,
the invAA gene was detected
in 72 (97.3%) Salmonella
isolates
Baquero et al. Cáqueza Determine presence of L. Analytical and cross-sectional Listeria spp. were identified in
(5) monocytogenes in study: the presence of L. 16.7% of the samples; from
homemade white cheese monocytogenes was the total samples positive for
sold at Cáqueza market investigated in 30 samples of Listeria spp., 80% presented
squares, Cundinamarca fresh homemade cheese L. monocytogenes and 20%
commercialized at the L. innocua, and it was
market squares of Cáqueza, evidenced that 100% of
Cundinamarca cheeses had some microbial
contamination
1350 ALVAREZ CONTRERAS ET AL. J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8

TABLE 1. Continued
Category
(no. of Author(s)
studies)a (reference) Place(s) Objective/study theme Methodology(ies) Results

Yánez et al. Montería Detect Salmonella spp. by A total of 311 food samples Salmonella spp. were isolated
(69) real-time PCR (RT- were analyzed, 256 from in 16.1% of the samples,
PCR) and conventional public spaces and 55 from with 68% of the positive
method in street foods the processing plant; cases being obtained with
and in beef samples microbiological analyses RT-PCR and 48% with the
collected from a were performed by standard conventional method; the
certified animal RT-PCR with a LightCycler foods from public spaces
processing plant with and by conventional method that showed higher
hazard analysis and contamination of Salmonella
critical control point spp. using the RT-PCR
system in the city of method were sausages with
Montería 28.1%, cheeses with 18.4%,
pork with 23.1%, and
ground beef with 9.3%,
while by the conventional
method, the rates were 12.3,
5.3, 15.4, and 15.6%,
respectively
Bayona (7) Bogotá Detect the presence of A total of 68 samples of food, Salmonella spp. and E. coli
pathogenic microbial including corn arepas, hot bacteria were identified in
loads (Salmonella spp. dogs, hamburgers, 11.8 and 25% of the samples,
and E. coli) in foods empanadas, sausages, natural respectively, pointing to the
sold in public spaces in orange juice, fruit salad, and microbiological risk of foods
a sector of northern pelanga, acquired from street sold; Salmonella spp. were
Bogotá sellers for 12 consecutive identified mainly in fruit
weeks were analyzed for the salad, hamburger, pelanga,
presence of Salmonella spp. and raw sausage, while E.
and E. coli coli was identified in all
types of foods evaluated
Méndez et al. Bogotá Characterize the isolation Cross-sectional descriptive Microbial growth was detected
(44) of Salmonella spp. observational study in which in a total of 18 samples
42 samples from food sold (42.9%); only 2 (11.1%)
in the streets were collected; samples were positive for S.
the methods proposed by the enterica by serotyping, 11
FDA were used to perform (61.1%) were positive for
biochemical analyses, other bacteria belonging to
serotyping for Salmonella the Enterobacteriaceae
spp., and antimicrobial family, and 5 (27.8%) could
susceptibility analyses not be identified
Bayona (8) Bogotá Evaluate the frequency of Microbiological analyses were 25% of street foods and 7.5%
certain microorganisms performed on samples of of established foods (fried
in food handlers and feces, food, and hands in chorizo, fruit salads, yogurt
food sold in an area of search of enteroparasites and with cereals, stuffed arepas,
northern Bogotá, Salmonella spp. and beef skewers) were
referring to the loads of positive for Salmonella spp.
enteroparasites and
Salmonella spp.
Acevedo et al. Cartagena Characterize the Proximal, microbiological, and Only the butifarras
(1) physicochemical texture analysis of 30 commercialized in
properties, texture, and samples from supermarkets, supermarkets complied with
microbiological quality Bazurto Market, and street the physicochemical quality
of butifarras sold in the vendors in the city of standards and met the
streets and Cartagena microbiological requirements
supermarkets of established in the Colombian
Cartagena City Technical Standards (19)
J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8 STREET FOOD IN COLOMBIA 1351

TABLE 1. Continued
Category
(no. of Author(s)
studies)a (reference) Place(s) Objective/study theme Methodology(ies) Results

Tobar Vargas Bogotá Characterize the hygienic Qualitative-quantitative The majority of participants
and Barbosa and sanitary conditions methodology to describe were female and heads of
Muñoz (61) of street food vendors some categories of interest households with low
at the National Park of with application of education levels; although
Bogotá, D.C., verifying questionnaires most vendors reported
whether they comply knowledge about health
with the regulation of guidelines and food
the sector manipulation training, there
was a high occurrence of
noncompliance with good
manufacturing practices and
sanitary rules
Campuzano et Bogotá Evaluate the Counting of mesophilic aerobes Results obtained in this study
al. (14) microbiological quality was carried out, as well as qualify the majority of food
of some foods prepared molds and yeasts, S. aureus, stalls as presenting a high
and served at outlets B. cereus, clostridial sulfite- health risk; in the study, the
near universities in reducing spores, prepared foods were over the
Bogotá, D.C. determination of total and acceptable microbiological
fecal coliforms, and limits
investigation of Salmonella
spp. and L. monocytogenes
Serna et al. (55) Palmira and Identify and evaluate the A diagnosis of good Main risk factors were lack of
Valle risk factors of manufacturing practice documented cleaning and
foodborne diseases at compliance was done, and disinfection programs,
four points of food sale microbiological analyses of absence of solid waste
in a university foods, equipment, and programs, deficiency in pest
community in Colombia surfaces were also carried control programs, poor design
out of facilities, and presence of
fecal coliforms in juices of
fresh fruits and salads
3 (3) Cárdenas et al. Bogotá and São Discuss the sale of street Descriptive study, based on The study concluded the street
(15) Paulo food in the lower secondary data, comparing food sale poses risks to
circuits of the urban social, economic, and health public health, due to both the
economy of Bogotá, indicators and regulation origins of the ingredients and
D.C. (Colombia), and related to street food trade in improper hygienic practices;
São Paulo (Brazil) and the lower-urban-economy also, there are social
its interaction with circuits in Bogotá concerns related to
social and political (Colombia) and in São Paulo underemployment, training
aspects (Brazil) opportunities, social
vulnerability, and occupation
of the public space
Marras (41) Milan, Italy Analyze and compare the A comparative analysis of Despite the differences among
legislation regulating legislation was carried out, the legislation analyzed, it is
the street food trade in based on scientific literature, considered that street food is
South American historical reports, political linked to three fundamental
capitals (Buenos Aires, debates, and governmental rights, which are the
Bogotá, La Paz, Lima, practices, along the segment; individual right to work, the
Montevideo, and semistructured, videotaped collective right to access and
Santiago) interviews were conducted use public spaces, and the
with street vendors, public right to food safety; this
managers from local and scenario raises complex
national departments, questions and causes
representatives from conflicts between the entities
vendors’ associations, involved: in Bogotá, the
academics and researchers, importance of street
unions, nongovernmental commerce, as worthy as
organization representatives, other works, must be
and FAO officials protected as an inalienable
right, and the need to reduce
repressive measures against
sellers is emphasized
1352 ALVAREZ CONTRERAS ET AL.
TABLE 1. Continued
Category
(no. of Author(s)
studies)a (reference) Place(s) Objective/study theme
Bejarano et al. Bogotá Discuss the implications of Information was collected from Expansion of street food is
(9) street food sale, both in the the references of the
context of public policies
and the initiatives of
international organizations, the subject; the analysis of the educational strategies and
from the perspective of
work and rights
a
The number of studies that analyzed the category.
In Colombia, the diversity of cultural traditions is
regulated by Decree 2941, Law 397 (2009) (21), which
establishes the meaning and benefits of the elements
considered of Cultural and Intangible Heritage (PCI),
including “traditional practices of transformation, conser-
vation and manipulation of food.” Silva et al. (56), besides
highlighting the economic issue of the segment, consider
street food as part of the local culture, often consumed by
the population.
This trade, through the use of public space and the need
to promote the sale of products, implies an intense dynamic
of social relations. Botero et al. (12), in their study in Neiva,
Huila, and Cartagena, Bolívar, emphasize the relationships
between coffee vendors and their customers, highlighting
the familiar aspect of sales. They are gestures, smiles, looks,
words, greetings, and conversations about daily life and
work that result in the establishment of a loyal relationship,
sustained by good treatment and courtesy.
Saldarriaga et al. (53), in Medellín, Antioquia, when
addressing the market strategies and the economic charac-
teristics of the sector, emphasize the creative capacity of the
vendors, despite the lack of academic training. According to
the authors, the intuitive thinking and the common sense of
the workers allowed them to develop practices that
configure a marketing process involving the definition of
prices, the selection of points of sale, the choice of the types
of products, and the forms of communication and
promotion, all based on intuition and imitation.
Based on these studies, the economic and social
contributions of the segment are confirmed and consistent
with surveys on the importance of informal labor in
Colombia (19). At the same time, the sector reveals its role
of protection of food cultural heritage, which involves
several elements, such as culinary and foodways, and is
sustained by strong relationships between sellers and
consumers.
Category 2: hygiene and microbiological safety in
the street food trade. In category 2, which covers street
J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8
Methodology(ies) Results
emphasized, which demands
Ministries of Health Web active governmental
pages and from research on regulation, strengthening of
material happened in three consumer protection, and
stages: (i) review of policy guarantees of the right to
content, (ii) identification and decent work
classification of the norms
concerning the type, and (iii)
contextualization of street
food sale within the global
scale
food safety, the largest proportion of studies was identified
(n ¼ 11, 57.9%). Two studies (55, 61) dealt with subjects
related to the hygienic-sanitary conditions of trade and the
evaluation of contamination risk factors, and nine carried
out microbiological analysis, which was the subject of
greatest research interest in the country (Tables 1 and 2).
With regard to the studies that carried out the
microbiological analysis of street foods, it is necessary,
first of all, to describe the types of foods researched, as
shown in Figure 2. As can be seen, fried foods, arepas,
sausages, and preparations with beef and pork prevailed. In
the country, deep-fried foods and arepas are staples of local
culture, presenting low prices and high consumption by the
population.
Products of animal origin, based on meats, meat
derivatives, and cheeses, constituted a great interest of
researchers, reflecting the Colombian supply and consump-
tion practices. In this sense, both the associated microbio-
logical risks and the development of chronic
nontransmissible diseases and obesity are considered, given
the richness in fats and the salt composition (13, 58).
Tobar Vargas and Barbosa Muñoz (2014) (61) describe
the hygienic-sanitary conditions of food trade in the
National Park of Bogotá, D.C., presenting several charac-
teristics of the activity. According to the authors, women
(69%) and persons older than 51 years (44%), single (38%),
and with low schooling levels (63%) predominated. The
points of sale had structures built with different materials,
precarious access to water, accumulations of garbage, and
presence of animals. There was evidence of inadequate food
storage, hand and tool hygiene, and food safety knowledge.
Serna et al. (55) carried out research at points of sale in
a university community in Palmira, Valle, evaluating good
manufacturing practices and the microbiological profiles of
food, water, equipment, environments, and the hands of
manipulators. Similarly, the study identified flaws regarding
cleaning and disinfection procedures, solid waste manage-
ment, pest control, and facility design. Also, thermotolerant
coliforms were found in fresh fruit juices, sauces, and salads
 J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8

TABLE 2. Distribution of food groups researched in published street food studies that reported noncompliance with regard to indicator and/or pathogenic microorganisms
No. of noncompliant samples/no. of analyzed samples from indicated food categorya

Drinks Desserts Sandwiches and baked dough Fruits Products of animal origin Salty pastry
(N ¼ 2) (N ¼ 1) (N ¼ 5) (N ¼ 4) (N ¼ 13) (N ¼ 9)

Deep fried
Orange juice Milk pudding Hot dog Hamburger Pizza Pineapple Fruit salad Beef Chicken Pork Sausages Cheese Arepas pastries Total
Group or microbe (n ¼ 2) (n ¼ 1) (n ¼ 1) (n ¼ 3) (n ¼ 1) (n ¼ 1) (n ¼ 3) (n ¼ 2) (n ¼ 1) (n ¼ 3) (n ¼ 4)b (n ¼ 3) (n ¼ 5) (n ¼ 4) (n ¼ 24)

Mesophilic bacteria 5/6 6/6 —e 4/6 3/6 5/6 6/6 — — — 10/10 — 1/6 6/6 46/58
Bacillus cereus — 0/6 — 0/6 0/6 — — 0/6 0/6 0/30
Molds and yeasts 6/6 4/6 — — — 6/6 — — — — — — — 16/18
Total coliforms 6/6 5/6 — 4/6 2/6 6/6 6/6 — — — 10/10 — 6/6 6/6 51/58
Thermotolerant coliforms 1/6 0/6 — 0/6 0/6 0/6 3/6 — — — 10/10 — 0/6 6/6 20/58
E. coli 1/8 — 1/4 1/8 — — 1/4 — — 2/8 6/16 — 2/8 3/12 17/68
Salmonella spp. 0/8 0/6 0/4 2/56 0/6 — 1/10 27/248 2/127 11/136 22/168 8/114 3/65 3/81 79/1,029
S. aureus — 0/6 0/6 0/6 — 0/6 — — — 10/10 0/6 0/6 34/76
L. innocua — — — — — — — — — — — 24/30 — — 24/30
L. monocytogenes — 0/6 — 0/6 0/6 — 0/6 — — — — 6/30 0/6 0/6 6/66
Clostridial sulfite reducers 2/6 0/6 — — — 1/6 0/6 — — — — — — — 3/24
a
Based on results from Durango et al. (25), Espinal Marin et al. (26), Baquero et al. (5), Yánez et al. (69), Bayona (7, 8), Méndez et al. (44), Acevedo et al. (1), and Campuzano et al. (14). N,
number of studies per food category; n, number of studies per type of food or drink by category.
b
Including raw, cooked, and fried chorizos and butifarras (spicy pork dumplings).
c
—, not researched.
STREET FOOD IN COLOMBIA
1353
1354 ALVAREZ CONTRERAS ET AL.
FIGURE 2. Distribution (numbers) of
publications on street food and food safety
in Colombia, regarding the frequency of
types of food investigated, in the period
from 2000 to 2018.
(100% noncompliance). The authors point out weaknesses
in the control by supervisory agencies, a thought that is
shared by researchers from other countries (3, 24).
In relation to deep-fried foods of high energy density,
health risks are also considered from the perspectives of
both lower nutritional quality and risks of recontamination
after preparation. Although it is not the focus of this work,
research has associated diets high in saturated fats, trans-
fatty acids, sugar, salt, and high-density carbohydrates with
individuals who often eat street foods (46, 59).
Several studies have looked at products like hot dogs,
hamburgers, and pizza, which are globally widespread and
signal changes in eating practices. This group stands out for
their gustatory attributes, affordable prices, and fast
preparation, although they also have negative health
implications.
Fruits sold on the streets, despite the lower frequency of
studies, are also very characteristic in Colombian cities. As
an example, in Cartagena, Bolívar, the palenqueras (women
from San Basilio de Palenque, the “first people free from the
slavery of Colombia and Latin America” (10)) appear as
traditional characters, carrying tropical fruits presented in
several forms, peeled, cut, and ready to eat, and also
handcrafted fruit candy (10). Although fruits are excellent
sources of micronutrients and fibers, there are also risks of
contamination.
The foods investigated in the studies had the following
distribution by category: 48.0% products of animal origin;
26.0% salted pastry, fried or baked; 11.0% sandwiches and
baked dough; 8.0% fruit; 5.0% drinks; and 2.0% desserts.
Table 2 describes the distribution of foods researched,
grouped by category and type, and the analyses conducted,
identifying the indicator microorganism group and/or
pathogen of interest and the register of nonconformity in
TABLE 3. Distribution of food groups researched in published street food studies that reported noncompliance for Salmonella spp.
No. of noncompliant samples/no. of analyzed samplesa
Author(s) (reference) Fruits (fruit salad) Beef dishes
Bayona (8) — 30/1,300
Espinal Marin et al. (26) 1/20 2/40
a
—, not researched.
J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8
relation to the number of samples analyzed. Two studies,
however, could not have their results inserted in Table 2,
due to the lack of detail in the methodology or results
presented. The findings of these studies (8, 26), which
investigated only Salmonella spp., were summarized in
Table 3.
It should be noted that the basis for establishing the
type of microorganism to be researched in the studies varied
according to the type of product, the year of research, and/or
the purpose of comparing the results with official standards.
In this context, four comparison sources were found: (i)
one study considered the Colombian Technical Standard
NTC 4092/2009, which deals with the technical regulation
on microbiological standards for foods (20); (ii) another
study considered the standard for prepared foods of the
National Institute of Drug Surveillance (INVIMA) and the
resolutions of the Ministry of Social Protection; (iii) four
studies considered the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) methods; and (iv) three studies considered the
scientific literature.
According to the information in Table 2, aerobic
mesophilic microorganisms were investigated in all food
categories, reaching 79.31% noncompliant levels in the
samples (46 of 58). Furlaneto-Maia et al. (30), who
analyzed the presence of aerobic mesophiles, Staphylococ-
cus aureus, total and thermotolerant coliforms, Escherichia
coli, and Salmonella spp. in 20 hot dog and cheese
sandwich samples in Brazil, report nonconformance indices
for all samples (100%) in relation to aerobic mesophiles.
The counting of mesophilic aerobes and facultative
anaerobes has been used as an indicator of hygienic
conditions and conservation of the products, being able to
signal risks of other contaminations from the product itself
or from external sources, such as handlers, utensils and
Products of animal origin
Chicken dishes Pork dishes Sausages Cheese Salty pastry (arepas) Total
12/1,300 6/1,300 13/1,300 9/1,300 — 70/1,300
— — 1/20 — 1/20 5/20
J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8
equipment, the environment, and animals, among others
(14). At the same time, they indicate the possibility of
recontamination in products submitted to cooking (46).
Bacillus cereus was investigated in 30 different food
samples in Colombia; however, no noncompliance was
reported. Although the results do not indicate a risk
condition for the microorganism, other studies have
described its presence at values higher than the standards
in different types of foods (4, 49).
Molds and yeasts were investigated in beverages,
desserts, and fruits, foods that are characteristically largely
acidic and in which these microorganisms grow under
favorable conditions. Of the total samples, an index of
88.89% (16 of 18) nonconforming samples was verified,
which confirms inadequate production and hygiene practic-
es. Studies that evaluated molds and yeasts in juices and
fruits confirmed the growth of this group of microorganisms
under conditions of acid pH and high concentrations of
sugars (27, 55).
For the groups of total and thermotolerant coliforms,
the indices of noncompliance in the samples were 87.79%
(51 of 58) and 34.48% (20 of 58), respectively. The
presence of these microorganisms in food reflects inade-
quate food handling, processing, and preservation condi-
tions (34). It is also important to emphasize that the
presence of thermotolerant coliforms is indicative of fecal
contamination and potential risk of pathogens (63).
Studies with street food have reported the presence of
this microbial group. As an example, Oranusi and
Olorunfemi (48), in Nigeria, report the presence of total
and thermotolerant coliforms, with identification of Salmo-
nella spp., in fruits ready for consumption. Kwiri et al. (36)
in Harare, Zimbabwe, found the presence of total and
thermotolerant coliforms and different types of microor-
ganisms (aerobes, E. coli, Salmonella spp., and S. aureus) in
samples of cooked foods sold in open markets.
Another microorganism investigated in Colombia was
E. coli, found in all food categories except desserts. A 25%
(17 of 68) index of nonconforming samples was found for
the microorganism, which shows, above all, failures in
handling, cleaning, and disinfection procedures during the
preparation and postpreparation preservation processes. The
study by Iyoha and Agoreyo (33), in Nigeria, reports the
presence of S. aureus, E. coli, coagulase-negative Staphy-
lococcus, and Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis in
fruits ready for consumption, reporting higher frequencies
of S. aureus and E. coli (46.4 and 28.8%, respectively).
Among the microorganisms researched in Colombia,
Salmonella spp. (Tables 2 and 3) were reported in eight
studies and in all food categories. Of the 2,349 samples
analyzed, 154 were noncompliant (6.55%), which was a low
index in face of the quantity of samples analyzed.
Regardless of this result, Méndez et al. (44) reported the
presence of Salmonella spp. in different kinds of street
foods in Colombia.
In this context, research in several countries has
confirmed the presence of this pathogen in several street
foods, classifying them as unfit for consumption (34, 36,
48). The description presented in these studies, as well as in
STREET FOOD IN COLOMBIA 1355
Colombia, reinforces the association between the lack of
adequate conditions in food handling and preparation, food
hygiene practices and/or inadequate heat treatment, and
incorrect personal hygiene practices, which may favor
contamination with this microorganism.
Concerning Staphylococcus aureus, reported in all food
groups except beverages, noncompliance of 44.73% (34 of
76) of the analyzed samples was observed. According to the
literature, the presence of this bacterium is linked to
incorrect food handling and packaging practices, and its
capacity for the production of heat-resistant enterotoxins is
highlighted as the cause of food poisoning (34, 48).
The presence of Listeria innocua and Listeria mono-
cytogenes was observed with higher frequency in cheeses,
registering rates of 80% (24 of 30) and 9.10% (6 of 66),
respectively, in the analyzed samples. The presence of L.
monocytogenes in cheese has been associated with inade-
quate preparation conditions, with artisanal production, and
with commercialization at room temperature, favoring their
multiplication.
These results are corroborated by studies in Colombia,
which show products prepared with milk frequently
contaminated with Listeria spp., due to the use of raw
milks that favor the growth of the microorganism, even
under refrigeration (5, 14). Needless to say, listeriosis is a
disease with great impact on public health, due to its high
mortality rates (17).
Clostridial sulfite reducers were identified, with the
lowest rate of noncompliance being 12.5% (3 of 24) of the
cases, particularly in the beverage, candy, and fruit
categories. Among the main characteristics of this group
are proteolytic properties and sporulation capacity, exam-
ples being Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium botu-
linum, capable of causing foodborne diseases (62). Salinas
et al. (54) investigated the presence of C. perfringens in
handmade and industrial hamburgers sold at free markets in
Trujillo, Peru, reporting its presence in all handmade
samples, within the standards, and its absence in industrial
burgers.
In view of the findings and constant concern for food
safety, weaknesses in the control and monitoring of street
foods are reported in Colombia and other parts of the world,
constituting a public health problem. According to interna-
tional guidelines, in order to achieve positive measures in
the promotion of food safety in this sector, there must be
cooperation of all those involved and the regulatory bodies
(28, 50, 67).
Category 3: street food—public policies and regu-
lation. Street food comprises a complex subject for both
academics and public managers. Thus, throughout the
world, this trade has been a subject of wide debate. In this
direction, three articles (15.8%) were included.
The article by Cárdenas et al. (15), comparing the
segment in the cities of São Paulo, Brazil, and Bogotá, D.C.,
highlights its contribution to the food supply and discusses
epidemiological risks and the challenges of regulation. The
authors reinforce the activity as a response to unemploy-
1356 ALVAREZ CONTRERAS ET AL.
ment, observing the dimensions of legality, the right to
work, and the use of public space.
Given the metropolitan characteristics of the cities,
there are important aspects of geographic extent, population
density, and high financial movement, although the
scenarios depict most sellers having few opportunities and
being poorly paid, due to lower qualifications, which is
reaffirmed by local authors (11, 61).
As to the sanitary risks, the authors consider the
paradoxes of the activity, which offers food and poses
potential health risks to the population. Despite the regulations
established in both cities, the need for policies that can
manage the right to work and educational strategies for sellers,
as well as consumer protection mechanisms, is highlighted.
Marras (41), in comparing the policies regulating street
food in different South American metropolises (Buenos
Aires, Bogotá, La Paz, Lima, Montevideo, and Santiago),
places the segment at a crossroads where three fundamental
rights meet: the individual right to work, the collective right
to access and use public spaces, and the right to food safety.
According to the author, in Bogotá, D.C., legislation
transitions between the individual right to work and the
preservation of public space, noting a conflict between
protecting workers and safeguarding the public space, which
reveals discontinuities between governments. As an example,
between 2001 and 2003, there was a policy aimed at
recovering public space and away from informal vendors,
who were considered economically and aesthetically unsuit-
able for the modern, competitive, and global city. Between
2004 and 2007, in turn, special programs were created aimed
at the inclusive formalization of street vendors (16).
In the more recent point of view of Bogotá lawmakers,
street commerce is as dignified as other jobs and, therefore,
should be protected as an inalienable right. In addition,
considering informal trade “illegal” can threaten public
property and endanger people, and it is necessary to
eradicate this threat, not in an action against sellers, but in
support of their inclusion in formality (9, 16).
Marras (41) also stresses the need to reduce repressive
measures against sellers, a fact that has been reported both
in national newspapers (39, 42, 60) and by researchers (15,
45). Merlano (45), for example, describes the persecution
by authorities, who remove sellers from their places of sale
and/or confiscate products and work equipment.
In a later publication, Bejarano et al. (9) discuss the
implications of the street food sector from a broader
perspective, considering different countries (Guatemala,
Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Brazil, and Spain) and the
guidelines of international organizations (28, 67). Scholars
note the growth of this trade and the need for specific
policies and regulations, seeking to achieve quality and
proper hygiene of products.
The authors discuss the central role of public agencies,
which should provide requirements for food quality
assurance through educational measures for food handlers
and food inspection and control, a recommendation that
corroborates the literature on the subject (2, 24, 39).
Specifically, Bejarano et al. (9) also emphasize aspects
related to the health of workers in the sector, who are
J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8
exposed to vehicle traffic, pollutants, and environmental
conditions. This dimension of health has been investigated
by other researchers, as described by Gómez-Palencia et al.
(31) when assessing the working and health conditions of
sellers of the Cartagena, Bolívar, open-air market, high-
lighting deficiencies in the physical environment, ergonom-
ic aspects, long shifts, and urban violence, which contribute
to the sickness of workers. In this case, one can signal
omission or little interest of the state over informal issues.
As can be seen, all studies consider the central role of
the street food segment for the population, notwithstanding
the adversities that the activity involves in several
dimensions. In this way, all the authors indicate that there
are still many challenges and the need for greater
recognition of the segment, as well as more-articulated,
continuous, and more-coherent policies.
Through this scenario, despite the political initiatives
and regulatory processes directed to the segment, it is
evaluated that there is a demand for institutional efforts and
interventions, involving social participation, aiming at the
formulation of strategies that help in the organization of the
segment. In this sense, it is also necessary to modernize the
Public Health Surveillance work system (22) and raise the
awareness of political managers to bring better solutions to
this reality. (Public Health Surveillance monitors risks
related to food, medicines, health technologies, household
products, public facilities, and supply chains. For this
purpose, it uses active surveillance, based on methodology
of good practices and research. This process is led by the
National Institute of Food and Drug Surveillance [INVI-
MA] [Colombia (22)].)
This position in favor of a better organization and
operation of the segment has been defended by international
bodies, with specific documents and guidelines (29, 68).
Also, successful experiences resulted in reported improve-
ments in street food, as with the Informal Food Trading
program by Gauteng Health Department, Ministry of Health,
South Africa, promoting food safety in informal trade (65).
In summary, this study allowed the identification of a
limited number of publications about the panorama of street
food in Colombia, with works predominantly from Bogotá,
D.C. Based on the dimensions evaluated, the economic,
social, and food importance was confirmed, although the
low scientific visibility of the segment persists.
Considering the food supply, we observed a great variety
of products, especially those of animal origin, arepas, and
deep-fried foods that comprise part of the local tradition.
Regarding the hygienic-sanitary condition of the products,
indicator microorganisms and pathogens were identified in
different groups of foods and preparations. Significant parts
of the samples analyzed showed noncompliance for different
microorganisms, including mesophyllic aerobes, thermotol-
erant coliforms, E. coli, S. aureus, and Salmonella spp.,
which indicates noncompliance with good production
practices and the potential risk of foodborne diseases.
From the perspective of policy formulation and
regulation of the segment, the need for public attention
was emphasized in order to promote more coherent
regulation of the local reality and educational programs
J. Food Prot., Vol. 83, No. 8
aimed at sellers and consumers so as to contribute to the
improvement of the segment.
Considering the scientific gaps in the country, studies
that can help formulate public policies and establish
strategies for the sector are suggested, in order to give
greater recognition to workers and improve supply conditions
and food safety by protecting the health of the population.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel
(CAPES) is acknowledged for the doctoral scholarship granted to Claudia
Patricia Alvarez Contreras.
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