4-The Skeletal System

Course Title & Code:
Anatomy and Embryology MLT-306 3(2-2)
The Skeletal System

COURSE INSTRUCTOR
DR. MUHAMMAD AMJAD AWAN
Introduction
❑The word skeleton comes from the Greek word skeleton meaning “dried up”. It is strong yet light adapted for its
function of body protection and motion.
❑The skeletal system includes bones, joints, cartilages and ligaments.
❑The joint give the body flexibility and allow movements to occur.
❑From structural point of view, the human skeletal system consists of two main types of supportive connective
tissue, bone and cartilage.
❑Bones make good fossils. While the soft tissue of a once living organism will decay and fall away over time, bone
tissue will, under the right conditions, undergo a process of mineralization, effectively turning the bone to stone.
❑A well-preserved fossil skeleton can give us a good sense of the size and shape of an organism.
❑Unlike a fossil skeleton, however, skeleton is a structure of living tissue that grows, repairs, and renews itself.
❑The bones are dynamic and complex organs that serve a number of important functions, including some
necessary to maintain homeostasis.
COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. MUHAMMAD AMJAD AWAN
Functions of the skeletal system
❑Support: it forms the internal framework that
supports and anchors all soft organs.
❑Protection: bones protect soft body organs.
❑Movement: skeletal muscles attached to the
skeletal system use the bone to levers to move
the body and its part.
❑Storage: fat is stored in the internal cavities
of bones. Bone it self-serves as a storehouse of
minerals. The most important being calcium
and phosphors.
❑Blood cell formation: it occurs within the
marrow cavities of certain bones.

Bone marrow
❑Bone marrow - A unique connective tissue
that fills the interior of most bones. Two types
are:
❑Yellow bone marrow contains adipose tissue,
and the triglycerides stored in the adipocytes
of this tissue can be released to serve as a
source of energy for other tissues of the body.
❑Red bone marrow is where the production of
blood cells (hematopoiesis) takes place. Red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are
all produced in the red bone marrow.
❑The distribution of red and yellow bone
marrow changes with age.

Bone
Classification
❑The 206 bones that
compose the adult skeleton
are divided into five
categories based on their
shapes.
❑Like other structure /
function relationships in the
body, their shapes and their
functions are related such
that each categorical shape
of bone has a distinct
function.

Bone Classifications
Bone classification Features Function(s) Examples
Long Cylinder-like shape, Movement, support Femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals,
longer than it is wide humerus, ulna, radius,
metacarpals, phalanges
Short Cube-like shape, Provide stability, Carpals, tarsals
approximately equal in support, while allowing
length, width, and for some motion
thickness
Flat Thin and curved Points of attachment for Sternum, ribs, scapulae, cranial
muscles; protectors of bones
internal organs
Irregular Complex shape Protect internal organs, Vertebrae, facial bones
movement, support
Sesamoid Small and round; Protect tendons from Patellae
embedded in tendons excessive forces, allow
(a dense connective tissue that connect effective muscle action
bones to muscles)
Gross Anatomy of Bones
❑A long bone has two regions: diaphysis and epiphysis.
❑Diaphysis is the hollow, tubular shaft that runs between the proximal
and distal ends of the bone. Inside the diaphysis is the medullary
cavity, which is filled with yellow bone marrow in an adult. The outer
walls of the diaphysis (cortex, cortical bone) are composed of dense
and hard compact bone, a form of osseous tissue.
❑Epiphysis is the wider section at each end of the bone (plural =
epiphyses), which is filled internally with spongy bone, another type
of osseous tissue. Red bone marrow fills the spaces between the
spongy bone in some long bones.
❑Each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis. During
growth, the metaphysis contains the epiphyseal plate, the site of long
bone elongation. When the bone stops growing in early adulthood
(approx. 18–21 years), the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal
line.

Gross Anatomy of Bones
❑Lining the inside of the bone adjacent to the medullary cavity is a layer of bone cells called
the endosteum . These bone cells cause the bone to grow, repair, and remodel throughout life.
❑On the outside of bones there is another layer of cells that grow, repair and remodel bone as
well. These cells are part of the outer double layered structure called the periosteum.
▪ The cellular layer is adjacent to the cortical bone and is
covered by an outer fibrous layer of dense irregular
connective tissue.
▪ The periosteum also contains blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone.
▪ Tendons and ligaments attach to bones at the periosteum.
▪ The periosteum covers the entire outer surface except
where the epiphyses meet other bones to form joints.
▪ In this region, the epiphyses are covered with articular
cartilage, a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that reduces
friction and acts as a shock absorber.
Gross Anatomy
of Bones
❑Flat bones, like those of the
cranium, consist of a layer
of diploë (spongy bone), covered on
either side by a layer of compact
bone.
❑The two layers of compact bone
and the interior spongy bone work
together to protect the internal
organs.
❑If the outer layer of a cranial bone
fractures, the brain is still protected
by the intact inner layer.
Anatomy of a Flat Bone

Osseous Tissue: Bone Matrix and Cells
❑Bone Matrix
❑Osseous tissue is a connective tissue and like all connective tissues contains relatively few cells
and large amounts of extracellular matrix.
❑By mass, osseous tissue matrix consists of 1/3rd collagen fibers and 2/3rds calcium phosphate
salt.
❑The collagen provides a scaffolding surface for inorganic salt crystals to adhere. These salt
crystals form when calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate combine to create hydroxyapatite.
❑Hydroxyapatite also incorporates other inorganic salts like magnesium hydroxide, fluoride, and
sulfate as it crystallizes, or calcifies, on the collagen fibers.
❑The hydroxyapatite crystals give bones their hardness and strength, while the collagen fibers
give them a framework for calcification and gives the bone flexibility so that it can bend without
being brittle.

Calcified collagen fibers from bone (scanning electron
micrograph, 10,000 X)

Bone Cells
❑Bone cells compose less than 2% of the bone mass, but they are crucial to the function of bones.
❑The osteoblast is the bone cell responsible for forming new bone and is found in the growing
portions of bone, including the endosteum and the cellular layer of the periosteum.
❑Osteoblasts, which do not divide, synthesize and secrete the collagen matrix and other proteins.
As the secreted matrix surrounding the osteoblast calcifies, the osteoblast become trapped within
it; as a result, it changes in structure and becomes an osteocyte, the primary cell of mature bone
and the most common type of bone cell.
❑Each osteocyte is located in a small cavity in the bone tissue called a lacuna (lacunae for plural).
❑Osteocytes maintain mineral concentration of matrix via the secretion of enzymes. Like
osteoblasts, osteocytes lack mitotic activity. They can communicate with each other and receive
nutrients via long cytoplasmic processes that extend through canaliculi, channels within the bone
matrix.
❑Osteocytes are connected to one another within the canaliculi via gap junctions.
Bone Cells
❑If osteoblasts and osteocytes are incapable of mitosis, then how are they replenished when old
ones die? The answer lies in the properties of a third category of bone cells—the osteogenic
cell.
❑The osteogenic cells are undifferentiated with high mitotic activity and they are the only bone
cells that divide. Immature osteogenic cells are found in the cellular layer of the periosteum and
the endosteum. They differentiate and develop into osteoblasts.
❑The dynamic nature of bone means that new tissue is constantly formed, and old, injured, or
unnecessary bone is dissolved for repair or for calcium release.
❑The cells responsible for bone resorption, or breakdown, are the osteoclasts. These
multinucleated cells originate from monocytes and macrophages, two types of white blood cells,
not from osteogenic cells.
❑Osteoclasts are continually breaking down old bone while osteoblasts are continually forming
new bone. The ongoing balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is responsible for the
constant but subtle reshaping of bone.

Bone Cells
Cell type Function Location
Osteogenic Develop into Endosteum, cellular
cells osteoblasts layer of the periosteum
Osteoblasts Bone Endosteum, cellular
formation layer of the periosteum,
growing portions of
bone
Osteocytes Maintain Entrapped in matrix
mineral
concentration
of matrix
Osteoclasts Bone Endosteum, cellular
resorption layer of the periosteum,
at sites of old, injured,
or unneeded bone

Compact and Spongy Bone
❑Most bones contain compact and spongy osseous tissue, but their distribution and
concentration vary based on the bone’s overall function.
❑Although compact and spongy bone are made of the same matrix materials and cells, they are
different in how they are organized.
❑Compact bone is dense so that it can withstand compressive forces, while
❑Spongy bone (also called cancellous bone) has open spaces and is supportive, but also
lightweight and can be readily remodeled to accommodate changing body needs.

Compact Bone
❑Compact bone makes up the outer cortex of all bones and is in immediate contact with the periosteum.
❑The concentric circles makes up the microscopic structural unit of compact bone called an osteon.
❑Each ring of the osteon is made of collagen and calcified matrix and is called a lamella (plural = lamellae).
❑The collagen fibers of adjacent lamallae run at perpendicular angles to each other, allowing osteons to
resist twisting forces in multiple directions.
❑Running down the center of each osteon is the central canal, or Haversian canal, which contains blood
vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. These vessels and nerves branch off at right angles through
a perforating canal, also known as Volkmann’s canals, to extend to the periosteum and endosteum.
❑The osteocytes are trapped within their lacuane, found at the borders of adjacent lamellae. As described
earlier, canaliculi connect with the canaliculi of other lacunae and eventually with the central canal. This
system allows nutrients to be transported to the osteocytes and wastes to be removed from them despite
the impervious calcified matrix.

Diagram of Compact Bone:
(a) This cross-sectional view of compact bone
shows several osteons, the basic structural
unit of compact bone. (b) In this micrograph
of the osteon, you can see the concentric
lamellae around the central canals.

Spongy (Cancellous)
Bone
❑Like compact bone, spongy bone, also known as cancellous
bone, contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are not
arranged in concentric circles. Instead, the lacunae and
osteocytes are found in a lattice-like network of matrix spikes
called trabeculae.
❑The trabeculae are covered by the endosteum, which can
readily remodel them.
❑The trabeculae may appear to be a random network, but each
trabecula forms along lines of stress to direct forces out to the
more solid compact bone providing strength to the bone.
❑Spongy bone provides balance to the dense and heavy
compact bone by making bones lighter so that muscles can
move them more easily.
❑In addition, the spaces in some spongy bones contain red
bone marrow, protected by the trabeculae, where
hematopoiesis occurs. Diagram of Spongy Bone
Blood and Nerve Supply of
Bone
❑The spongy bone and medullary cavity receive nourishment from
arteries that pass through the compact bone.
❑The arteries enter through the nutrient foramen (plural = foramina),
small openings in the diaphysis.
❑The osteocytes in spongy bone are nourished by blood vessels of the
periosteum that penetrate spongy bone and blood that circulates in
the marrow cavities.
❑As the blood passes through the marrow cavities, it is collected by
veins, which then pass out of the bone through the foramina.
❑In addition to the blood vessels, nerves follow the same paths into
the bone where they tend to concentrate in the more metabolically
active regions of the bone.
❑The nerves sense pain, and it appears the nerves also play roles in
regulating blood supplies and in bone growth, hence their
concentrations in metabolically active sites of the bone.

Skeleton
❑The skeletal system includes all of the bones, cartilages, and ligaments of body that support and
give shape to the body and body structures, whereas the skeleton consists of the bones of the body.
❑For adults, there are 206 named bones in the skeleton.
❑Younger individuals have higher numbers of bones because some bones fuse together during
childhood and adolescence.
❑The primary functions of the skeleton are to provide a rigid, internal structure that protects internal
organs and supports the weight of the body, and to provide a structure upon which muscles can act
to produce movements of the body.
❑Bones of skeleton also serve as primary storage site for important minerals (calcium and phosphate).
❑Bone marrow found within bones stores fat and houses the blood-cell producing tissue of the body.
❑The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions—the axial and appendicular.

The Axial Skeleton
❑The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes all bones of the head, neck,
chest, and back.
❑It serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs.
❑It also serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back, and for muscles that
act across the shoulder and hip joints to move their corresponding limbs.
❑The axial skeleton of the adult consists of 80 bones, comprising the skull, the vertebral column, and
the thoracic cage.
❑The skull is formed by 22 bones. Also associated with the head are an additional seven bones, including
the hyoid bone (found in the upper neck) and the ear ossicles (3 small bones found in each middle ear).
❑The vertebral column consists of 24 bones, each called a vertebra, plus the fused vertebrae of
the sacrum and coccyx.
❑The thoracic cage includes 12 pairs of ribs, and the sternum, the flattened bone of the anterior chest.

Skull
❑In adults, the skull consists
of 22 individual bones, 21 of
which are immobile and
united into a single unit.
❑The 22nd bone is
the mandible (lower jaw),
which is the only moveable
bone of the skull.
Parts of the Skull

Anterior View of Skull:
An anterior view of the
skull shows the bones
that form the forehead,
orbits (eye sockets), nasal
cavity, nasal septum, and
upper and lower jaws.

Posterior View of
Skull:
This view of the
posterior skull
shows attachment
sites for muscles
and joints that
support the skull.

Lateral View of Skull:
The lateral skull shows the large
rounded brain case, zygomatic
arch, and the upper and lower
jaws. The zygomatic arch is
formed jointly by the zygomatic
process of the temporal bone
and the temporal process of the
zygomatic bone. The shallow
space above the zygomatic arch
is the temporal fossa

Sagittal Section of Skull:
This midline view of the
sagittally sectioned skull
shows the nasal septum.

Sutures of the
Skull
❑A suture is an immobile joint between
adjacent bones of the skull.
❑The narrow gap between the bones is
filled with dense, fibrous connective
tissue that unites the bones.
❑The long sutures located between the
bones of the cranium are not straight,
but instead follow irregular, tightly
twisting paths.
❑These twisting lines serve to tightly
interlock the adjacent bones, thus
adding strength to the skull to protect
the brain.

Vertebral Column
❑The vertebral column is also known as the
spinal column.
❑It consists of a sequence of vertebrae
(singular = vertebra), each of which is
separated and united by a
cartilaginous intervertebral disc.
❑Together, the vertebrae and intervertebral
discs form the vertebral column.
Vertebral Column:
❑It is a flexible column that supports the The adult vertebral column consists of 24 vertebrae, plus
head, neck, and body and allows for their the fused vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx. The
movements.
vertebrae are divided into three regions: cervical C1–C7
❑It also protects the spinal cord, which vertebrae, thoracic T1–T12 vertebrae, and lumbar L1–L5
passes through openings in the vertebrae. vertebrae. The vertebral column is curved, with two primary
curvatures (thoracic and sacrococcygeal curves) and two
secondary curvatures (cervical and lumbar curves).
Thoracic Cage:
The thoracic cage is formed by
the (a) sternum and (b) 12 pairs
of ribs with their costal cartilages.
The ribs are anchored posteriorly
to the 12 thoracic vertebrae.
The sternum consists of the
manubrium, body, and xiphoid
process.
The ribs are classified as true ribs
(1–7) and false ribs (8–12). The
last two pairs of false ribs are also
known as floating ribs (11–12).

Appendicular skeleton
❑Attached to the axial skeleton are the limbs, whose 126 bones constitute the appendicular
skeleton.
❑These bones are divided into two groups: the bones that are located within the limbs
themselves, and the girdle bones that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
❑The bones of the shoulder region form the pectoral girdle, which anchors the upper limb to the
thoracic cage of the axial skeleton.
❑The lower limb is attached to the vertebral column by the pelvic girdle.

Pectoral Girdle
❑ The bones that attach each upper limb
to the axial skeleton form the pectoral
girdle (shoulder girdle). This consists of
two bones, the scapula and clavicle.
❑The clavicle (collarbone) is an S-shaped
bone located on the anterior side of the
shoulder.
❑It is attached on its medial end to the
sternum of the thoracic cage, which is
part of the axial skeleton.
❑The lateral end of the clavicle articulates
(joins) with the scapula just above the
shoulder joint.

Bones of the Upper Limb
❑The upper limb is divided into three regions.
1. These consist of the arm, located between the shoulder and elbow joints.
2. The forearm, which is between the elbow and wrist joints.
3. The hand, which is located distal to the wrist.
❑There are 30 bones in each upper limb.
❑The humerus is the single bone of the arm, and the ulna (medially) and the radius (laterally)
are the paired bones of the forearm.
❑The base of the hand contains eight carpal bones, and the palm of the hand is formed by
five metacarpal bones.
❑The fingers and thumb contain a total of 14 phalanges.

Humerus and Elbow Joint:
The humerus is the single bone of
the arm region. It articulates with the
radius and ulna bones of the forearm
to form the elbow joint.

Ulna and Radius:
The ulna is located on the
medial side of the forearm, and
the radius is on the lateral side.
These bones are attached to
each other by an interosseous
membrane.

Bones of the Wrist and
Hand:
The eight carpal bones
form the base of the hand.
These are arranged into
proximal and distal rows of
four bones each. The
metacarpal bones form the
palm of the hand. The
thumb and fingers consist
of the phalanx bones.

Pelvic Girdle and
Pelvis
❑The two hip bones (also called coxal
bones or os coxae) are together called
the pelvic girdle (hip girdle) and serve
as the attachment point for each lower
limb.
❑When the two hip bones are
combined with the sacrum and coccyx
of the axial skeleton, they are referred
to as the pelvis.
❑The right and left hip bones also
converge anteriorly to attach to each
other at the pubic symphysis.

Comparison of Female and Male Pelvis
Female pelvis Male pelvis
Pelvic weight Bones of the pelvis are lighter and Bones of the pelvis are thicker
thinner and heavier
Pelvic inlet shape Pelvic inlet has a round or oval Pelvic inlet is heart-shaped
shape
Lesser pelvic cavity shape Lesser pelvic cavity is shorter and Lesser pelvic cavity is longer and
wider narrower
Subpubic angle Subpubic angle is greater than 80 Subpubic angle is less than 70
degrees degrees
Pelvic outlet shape Pelvic outlet is rounded and Pelvic outlet is smaller
larger

Male and Female Pelvis:
The female pelvis is adapted for childbirth and is broader, with a larger subpubic angle, a rounder
pelvic brim, and a wider and more shallow lesser pelvic cavity than the male pelvis.
Bones of the Lower Limb
❑Like the upper limb, the lower limb is divided into three regions.
❑The thigh is that portion of the lower limb located between the hip joint and knee joint.
❑The leg is specifically the region between the knee joint and the ankle joint.
❑Distal to the ankle is the foot.
❑The lower limb contains 30 bones. These are the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones,
metatarsal bones, and phalanges.
❑The femur is the single bone of the thigh.
❑The patella is the kneecap and articulates with the distal femur.
❑The tibia is the larger, weight-bearing bone located on the medial side of the leg, and
the fibula is the thin bone of the lateral leg.

Bones of the Lower Limb
❑The bones of the foot are divided into three groups. The posterior portion of the foot is formed
by a group of seven tarsal bones, whereas the mid-foot contains five
elongated metatarsal bones.
❑The toes contain 14 small phalanges.

Femur and Patella:
The femur is the single bone of the thigh region.
It articulates superiorly with the hip bone at the
hip joint, and inferiorly with the tibia at the knee
joint. The patella only articulates with the distal
end of the femur.

Tibia and Fibula:
The tibia is the larger, weight-bearing
bone located on the medial side of the
leg. The fibula is the slender bone of the
lateral side of the leg and does not bear
weight.

Bones of the Foot:
The bones of the foot
are divided into three
groups.
The posterior foot is
formed by the seven
tarsal bones.
The mid-foot has the
five metatarsal bones.
The toes contain the
phalanges.

4-The Skeletal System

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Course Title & Code:

Anatomy and Embryology MLT-306 3(2-2)

The Skeletal System

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

Anatomy of a Flat Bone

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

Parts of the Skull

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY, COURSE CODE: MLT-306,

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