• Location of Male Reproductive System:

• Positioned in the pelvic region (Figure 2.1a).

• Components of the System:

• Testes, accessory ducts, glands, and external genitalia.

• Testes and Scrotum:

• Testes are housed outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum.

• Scrotum maintains lower temperature (2–2.5°C below internal body temperature)

crucial for spermatogenesis.

• Each testis is oval-shaped, about 4-5 cm long and 2-3 cm wide, covered by a dense
covering.

• Testis contains about 250 compartments called testicular lobules (Figure 2.1b).

• Seminiferous Tubules:

• Found within each testicular lobule, containing one to three highly coiled
seminiferous tubules where sperms are produced.

• Lined with two types of cells: male germ cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells
(Figure 2.2).

• Male germ cells undergo meiotic divisions leading to sperm formation, while Sertoli
cells provide nutrition.

• Interstitial Spaces:

• Outside seminiferous tubules, containing small blood vessels and Leydig cells which
synthesize and secrete androgens.

• Male Sex Accessory Ducts:

• Rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis, and vas deferens (Figure 2.1b).

• Path of Sperm Transport:

• Seminiferous tubules open into vasa efferentia via rete testis.

• Vasa efferentia lead to epididymis on the posterior surface of each testis.

• Epididymis connects to vas deferens, which ascends to the abdomen and loops over
the urinary bladder.

• Receives a duct from seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as ejaculatory duct
(Figure 2.1a).

• Function of Ducts:

• Store and transport sperms from testis to the outside through urethra.

• Urethra:
 • Originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to the external
opening called urethral meatus.

- **Penis as Male External Genitalia**:

- External genitalia of the male (Figure 2.1a, b).

- Composed of specialized tissue aiding in erection for insemination.

- **Structure of Penis**:

- Glans penis: Enlarged end of the penis.

- Foreskin: Loose fold of skin covering the glans penis.

- **Male Accessory Glands**:

- Seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands (Figure 2.1a, b).

- **Function of Accessory Glands**:

- Produce secretions forming seminal plasma rich in fructose, calcium, and certain enzymes.

- **Role of Bulbourethral Glands**:

- Secretions aid in lubricating the penis.

• Components of Female Reproductive System:

• Ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina, and external genitalia located in the pelvic
region (Figure 2.3a).

• Integration and Functionality:

• Integrated structurally and functionally to support ovulation, fertilization,

pregnancy, birth, and child care, along with mammary glands.

• Ovaries:

• Primary female sex organs producing ovum and ovarian hormones.

• Located one on each side of the lower abdomen (Figure 2.3b).

• Covered by thin epithelium enclosing ovarian stroma divided into peripheral cortex
and inner medulla.

• Oviducts:

• Consist of infundibulum, ampulla, and isthmus.

• Ampulla is the wider part where fertilization usually occurs before the embryo
moves to the uterus.

• Uterus:

• Single, inverted pear-shaped organ supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic

wall.
 • Opens into the vagina through the narrow cervix, forming the birth canal.

• Wall consists of perimetrium, myometrium, and endometrium undergoing cyclical

changes during the menstrual cycle.

• Female External Genitalia:

• Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, and clitoris (Figure 2.3a).

• Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.

• Labia majora are fleshy folds surrounding the vaginal opening, while labia minora
are paired folds beneath them.

• Hymen partially covers the vaginal opening, often torn during first intercourse or by
other activities.

• Clitoris is a small structure above the urethral opening, involved in sexual arousal.

• Mammary Glands

• Paired structures (breasts) containing glandular tissue and fat.

• Glandular tissue divided into 15 -20 mammary lobes, each containing alveoli
secreting milk.

• Milk stored in alveolar cavities and sucked out through mammary tubules and ducts

- **Gametogenesis**:

- Process of producing gametes (sperms in males, ovum in females) by primary sex organs (testis in
males, ovaries in females).

- **Spermatogenesis**:

- Occurs in testis, initiated at puberty.

- Immature male germ cells (spermatogonia) undergo mitotic division, increasing in number.

- Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis, resulting in two haploid secondary spermatocytes.

- Secondary spermatocytes undergo second meiotic division, producing four haploid spermatids
with 23 chromosomes each (Figure 2.5).

- **Transformation into Spermatozoa**:

- Spermatids transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) through spermiogenesis.

- Sperm heads embedded in Sertoli cells, released from seminiferous tubules via spermiation.

- **Initiation of Spermatogenesis**:

- Begins at puberty due to increased secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from

hypothalamus.

- GnRH stimulates anterior pituitary to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH).

- **Effects of LH and FSH**:

 - LH acts on Leydig cells, stimulating synthesis and secretion of androgens, which promote
spermatogenesis.

- FSH acts on Sertoli cells, stimulating secretion of factors aiding spermiogenesis.

• Structure of Sperm:

• Microscopic structure consisting of a head, neck, middle piece, and tail (Figure 2.6).

• Enveloped by a plasma membrane.

• Components of Sperm:

• Head: Contains elongated haploid nucleus covered by an acrosome filled with

enzymes for fertilization.

• Middle Piece: Contains numerous mitochondria producing energy for tail

movement.

• Tail: Facilitates sperm motility essential for fertilization.

• Ejaculation and Sperm Count:

• Human male ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms during coitus.

• For normal fertility, at least 60% of sperms must have normal shape and size, and at
least 40% must show vigorous motility.

• Transport and Maturation of Sperms:

• Sperms released from seminiferous tubules are transported by accessory ducts.

• Secretions from epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, and prostate essential for
sperm maturation and motility.

• Formation of Semen:

• Seminal plasma along with sperms constitutes semen.

• Regulation of Male Sex Accessory Ducts and Glands:

• Testicular hormones (androgens) maintain the functions of male sex accessory ducts
and glands.

- **Oogenesis**:

- Process of forming mature female gametes, markedly different from spermatogenesis.

- Initiated during embryonic development stage with formation of oogonia in fetal ovaries; no new
oogonia formed after birth.

- **Development of Oocytes**:

- Oogonia undergo division and enter prophase-I of meiotic division, becoming primary oocytes.

- Primary oocytes surrounded by granulosa cells form primary follicles; many degenerate before
puberty, leaving 60,000-80,000 in each ovary.
 - Primary follicles develop into secondary follicles with additional layers of granulosa cells and
theca.

- **Formation of Tertiary Follicle**:

- Secondary follicle transforms into tertiary follicle with fluid-filled cavity (antrum) and organized
theca interna and theca externa.

- **Meiotic Division in Tertiary Follicle**:

- Primary oocyte within tertiary follicle grows and completes first meiotic division, forming a large
secondary oocyte and tiny first polar body (Figure 2.8b).

- **Advantages of Unequal Division**:

- Secondary oocyte retains bulk of nutrient-rich cytoplasm from primary oocyte, potentially
providing ample resources for embryo development.

- **Maturation into Graafian Follicle**:

- Tertiary follicle matures into Graafian follicle, with secondary oocyte surrounded by zona
pellucida.

- **Ovulation**:

- Graafian follicle ruptures to release secondary oocyte (ovum) from ovary during ovulation.

- **Differences Between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis**:

- Spermatogenesis occurs continuously from puberty, while oogenesis begins before birth and stops
at menopause.

- In spermatogenesis, four equal-sized sperm cells are produced from each spermatogonium, while
in oogenesis, only one functional ovum is produced, along with smaller polar bodies.

• Menstrual Cycle:

• Reproductive cycle in female primates (e.g., monkeys, apes, and humans), starting at
puberty with menarche.

• Average interval of about 28/29 days, comprising events from one menstruation to
the next, including ovulation.

• Major Events of Menstrual Cycle (Figure 2.9):

• Begins with menstrual phase, lasting 3-5 days, characterized by menstrual flow due
to breakdown of endometrial lining.

• Followed by follicular phase, where primary follicles grow into mature Graafian
follicle and endometrium regenerates.

• Gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increase gradually during follicular phase, stimulating
follicular development and estrogen secretion.

• LH and FSH peak around the 14th day, inducing ovulation (release of ovum) from the
ruptured Graafian follicle.
 • Ovulation followed by luteal phase, where remaining Graafian follicle transforms
into corpus luteum, secreting progesterone essential for maintaining endometrium.

• Pregnancy and Menstruation:

• During pregnancy, menstrual cycle events cease, and there's no menstruation.

• In absence of fertilization, corpus luteum degenerates, leading to disintegration of

endometrium and menstruation, marking a new cycle.

• Menopause:

• Cessation of menstrual cycles around 50 years of age, indicating end of reproductive

phase.

• Significance:

• Cyclic menstruation indicates normal reproductive phase, extending from menarche

to menopause.

- **Insemination and Sperm Transport**:

- During copulation, semen is released into the vagina, and motile sperms swim through the cervix,
uterus, and reach the ampullary region of the fallopian tube (Figure 2.11b).

- Ovum is transported to the ampullary region for fertilization.

- **Fertilization**:

- Fusion of sperm with ovum, occurring in the ampullary region.

- Sperm contacts the zona pellucida layer of the ovum, inducing changes that prevent entry of
additional sperms.

- Secretions of the acrosome aid sperm entry into the ovum, completing the meiotic division of the
secondary oocyte.

- Fusion of haploid nuclei of sperm and ovum forms a diploid zygote.

- **Chromosome Composition of Zygote**:

- Zygote contains a diploid set of chromosomes.

- Sex of the baby determined by the sex chromosomes inherited from the parents (XX for female,
XY for male).

- **Cleavage and Formation of Blastomeres**:

- Mitotic division of zygote forms blastomeres as it moves through the oviduct towards the uterus.

- Successive divisions result in the formation of 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.

- **Formation of Morula and Blastocyst**:

- Embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres forms a morula, which continues to divide and transform into a
blastocyst as it moves into the uterus.

- **Structure of Blastocyst**:
 - Blastomeres arranged into an outer layer called trophoblast and inner group of cells called inner
cell mass.

- **Implantation**:

- Trophoblast layer attaches to the endometrium, while inner cell mass differentiates into the
embryo.

- Rapid division of uterine cells covers the blastocyst, embedding it into the endometrium, leading
to pregnancy.

- **Formation of Placenta**:

- After implantation, chorionic villi on trophoblast interdigitate with uterine tissue to form placenta
(Figure 2.12).

- Placenta facilitates exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste between embryo and maternal
blood.

- Connected to embryo via umbilical cord, acts as endocrine tissue producing hormones like hCG,
hPL, estrogens, progestogens, and relaxin.

- **Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy**:

- Hormones like hCG, hPL, and relaxin are produced exclusively during pregnancy.

- Increased levels of hormones like estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine support
fetal growth, metabolic changes in mother, and maintain pregnancy.

- **Embryonic Differentiation**:

- Inner cell mass differentiates into ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm, which give rise to all
adult tissues and organs.

- Inner cell mass contains stem cells capable of forming all tissues and organs.

- **Features of Embryonic Development**:

- Human pregnancy lasts 9 months; pregnancy durations vary in other species (e.g., dogs,
elephants, cats).

- By one month, embryo's heart is formed; heart sound can be detected by stethoscope.

- By end of second month, embryo develops limbs and digits.

- By 12 weeks (first trimester), most major organ systems are formed, and limbs and external
genital organs are well-developed.

- First fetal movements and appearance of hair on the head usually observed during fifth month.

- By end of 24 weeks (end of second trimester), body is covered with fine hair, eyelids separate, and
eyelashes form.

- By end of nine months, fetus is fully developed and ready for delivery.
• Gestation Period and Parturition:

• Human pregnancy lasts approximately 9 months, known as the gestation period.

• Vigorous uterine contractions at the end of pregnancy expel the fetus, termed
parturition or childbirth.

• Parturition is induced by signals from the fully developed fetus and placenta,
triggering oxytocin release from the maternal pituitary.

• Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions, leading to stronger contractions and

eventual expulsion of the baby through the birth canal.

• After delivery, the placenta is also expelled from the uterus.

• Induction of Delivery:

• Doctors may inject oxytocin to induce delivery, enhancing uterine contractions.

• Lactation:

• Mammary glands undergo differentiation during pregnancy, initiating milk

production towards the end of pregnancy, a process called lactation.

• Milk produced initially, called colostrum, contains essential antibodies crucial for
newborn immunity.

• Breastfeeding during the early stages of infant growth is recommended by doctors

for promoting healthy development.