PLANT AND

ANIMAL ORGAN
SYSTEMS AND
THEIR FUNCTIONS
3.1 Reproduction and
Development
 THE HUMAN
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 THE MALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 The Male Reproductive System
• Themale reproductive system includes the scrotum, testes, spermatic
ducts, sex glands, and penis.
• Theseorgans work together to produce sperm, the male gamete, and the
other components of semen.
• Theseorgans also work together to deliver semen out of the body and into
the vagina where it can fertilize egg cells to produce offspring
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
SCROTUM

• The scrotum is a sac-like organ made of skin and

muscles that houses the testes.
• It is located inferior to the penis in the pubic
region.
• The scrotum is made up of 2 side-by-side pouches
with a testis located in each pouch.
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
TESTES / Testicles

• The 2 testes, also known as testicles, are the

male gonads responsible for the production of
sperm and testosterone.
• The testes are ellipsoid glandular organs around
1.5 to 2 inches long and an inch in diameter.
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
EPIDIDYMIS
• The epididymis is a sperm storage area that wraps
around the superior and posterior edge of the testes.
• The epididymis is made up of several feet of long, thin
tubules that are tightly coiled into a small mass.
• Sperm produced in the testes moves into the
epididymis to mature before being passed on through
the male reproductive organs.
• The length of the epididymis delays the release of the
sperm and allows them time to mature.
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
DUCTUS DEFERENS / VAS DEFERENS
• The ductus deferens, also known as the vas deferens, is
a muscular tube that carries sperm superiorly from
the epididymis into the abdominal cavity to the
ejaculatory duct.
• The ductus deferens is wider in diameter than the
epididymis and uses its internal space to store mature
sperm.
• The smooth muscles of the walls of the ductus
deferens are used to move sperm towards the
ejaculatory duct through peristalsis.
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
SEMINAL VESICLE
• The seminal vesicles are a pair of lumpy exocrine glands
that store and produce some of the liquid portion of
semen.
• The seminal vesicles are about 2 inches in length and
located posterior to the urinary bladder and anterior to
the rectum.
• The liquid produced by the seminal vesicles contains
proteins and mucus and has an alkaline pH to help sperm
survive in the acidic environment of the vagina.
• The liquid also contains fructose to feed sperm cells so
that they survive long enough to fertilize the oocyte.
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
EJACULATORY DUCT
• The ductus deferens passes through the prostate
and joins with the urethra at a structure known as
the ejaculatory duct.
• The ejaculatory duct contains the ducts from the
seminal vesicles as well.
• During ejaculation, the ejaculatory duct opens and
expels sperm and the secretions from the seminal
vesicles into the urethra.
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
URETRA
• Semen passes from the ejaculatory duct to the
exterior of the body via the urethra, an 8 to 10 inch
long muscular tube.
• The urethra passes through the prostate and ends at
the external urethral orifice located at the tip of the
penis.
• Urine exiting the body from the urinary bladder
also passes through the urethra.
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
PROSTATE GLAND
• The prostate is a walnut-sized exocrine gland that
borders the inferior end of the urinary bladder and
surrounds the urethra.
• The prostate produces a large portion of the fluid
that makes up semen.
• This fluid is milky white in color and contains
enzymes, proteins, and other chemicals to support
and protect sperm during ejaculation.
• The prostate also contains smooth muscle tissue
that can constrict to prevent the flow of urine or
semen.
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
COWPER’S GLAND/BULBOURETHRAL GLAND
• The Cowper’s glands, also known as the
bulbourethral glands, are a pair of pea-sized
exocrine glands located inferior to the prostate and
anterior to the anus.
• The Cowper’s glands secrete a thin alkaline fluid
into the urethra that lubricates the urethra and
neutralizes acid from urine remaining in the
urethra after urination.
• This fluid enters the urethra during sexual arousal
prior to ejaculation to prepare the urethra for the
flow of semen.
 Organs of the
Male Reproductive System
PENIS
• The penis is the male external sexual organ located
superior to the scrotum and inferior to the
umbilicus.
• The penis is roughly cylindrical in shape and
contains the urethra and the external opening of
the urethra.
• The function of the penis is to deliver semen into
the vagina during sexual intercourse.
• In addition to its reproductive function, the penis
also allows for the excretion of urine through the
urethra to the exterior of the body.
 Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process of producing sperm and takes place in the
testes and epididymis of adult males. Prior to puberty, there is no
spermatogenesis due to the lack of hormonal triggers.
At puberty, spermatogenesis begins when luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) are produced. LH triggers the
production of testosterone by the testes while FSH triggers the maturation
of germ cells.
 Stages of Spermatogenesis
• Testosterone
stimulates stem cells in the testes known as spermatogonium to
undergo the process of developing into spermatocytes.
• Eachdiploid spermatocyte goes through the process of meiosis I and splits into
2 haploid secondary spermatocytes.
• The secondary spermatocytes go through meiosis II to form 4 haploid spermatid
cells.
• Thespermatid cells then go through a process known as spermiogenesis where
they grow a flagellum and develop the structures of the sperm head.
• After spermiogenesis, the cell is finally a sperm cell, or spermatozoa.
• The
spermatozoa are released into the epididymis where they complete their
maturation and become able to move on their own.
 THE FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 The Female Reproductive System
• The female reproductive system is designed to produce the female egg
cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes.
• The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of fertilization.
• The function of the external female reproductive structures (the genitals)
is twofold: To enable sperm to enter the body and to protect the internal
genital organs from infectious organisms.
 Organs of the
Female Reproductive System
LABIA MAJORA
• The labia majora enclose and protect the other
external reproductive organs.
• Literally translated as "large lips," the labia majora
are relatively large and fleshy, and are comparable to
the scrotum in males.
• The labia majora contain sweat and oil-secreting
glands.
• After puberty, the labia majora are covered with
hair.
 Organs of the
Female Reproductive System
LABIA MINORA
• Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora
can be very small or up to 2 inches wide.
• They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround
the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the
lower part of the uterus to the outside of the body)
and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the
bladder to the outside of the body).
 Organs of the
Female Reproductive System
BARTHOLIN'S GLANDS
• These glands are located beside the vaginal opening and
produce a fluid (mucus) secretion.
CLITORIS
• The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive
protrusion that is comparable to the penis in males.
• The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called the
prepuce, which is similar to the foreskin at the end of the
penis.
• Like the penis, the clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation
and can become erect.
 Organs of the
Female Reproductive System
VAGINA
• The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix
(the lower part of uterus) to the outside of
the body.
• It also is known as the birth canal.
 Organs of the
Female Reproductive System
UTERUS (WOMB)
• The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the
home to a developing fetus.
OVARIES
• The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are
located on either side of the uterus.
• The ovaries produce eggs and hormones.
FALLOPIAN TUBES
These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper
part of the uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg
cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus.
 Oogenesis
Oogenesis is the process of producing the female gametes, the Ovum, from
the primordial germ cells.
The majority of the steps in oogenesis, up to the point of producing
primary oocytes, occur prenatally. Therefore, females are born with all of
the Primary Oocytes that they will ever have as primary oocytes do not
divide further.
Oogenesis
 Stages of Oogenesis
Stage 1
• Primordial germ cell undergoes mitosis to produce two Oogonia. These cells are
all Diploid.
• Occurs Prenatally.
Stage 2
• Each Oogonia also undergoes mitosis to produce two diploid Primary Oocytes.
• Occurs Prenatally.
Stage 3
• Each Primary Oocyte starts to undergo meiosis I replicating their DNA, but they
are arrested at the first Meiotic Prophase.
• Occurs Prenatally.
 Stages of Oogenesis
Stage 4
• The meiotic block is removed by the onset of puberty and the first Luteinizing Hormone surge. The
primary oocyte completes its first meiotic division producing a Secondary oocyte and the first polar
body. The Secondary Oocyte enters Meiosis II and is arrested at metaphase II. The secondary oocyte is
diploid.
• The oocyte enlarges due to a increase (x50) in cytoplasmic volume. The oocyte is now 100-150µm.
• Ovulation occurs at this stage once the first meiotic division has been completed and secondary oocyte
formed within the dominant follicle. The exception to this is in the case of the Bitch where ovulation
occurs after stage 3 with the Primary Oocyte arrested in prophase I.
• Occurs after puberty is reached.
Stage 5
• The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II producing the mature gamete, the Ova, which is haploid.
• This stage only occurs once fertilization of the secondary oocyte by the sperm has occurred.
 Ovarian Cycle
Is a series of events in the ovaries
that occur during and after the
maturation of the oocyte.
 Stages Ovarian Cycle
I. Follicular Phase
• The follicular phase is the first part of the
ovarian cycle.
• During this phase, the ovarian follicles
mature and get ready to release an egg.
• The latter part of this phase overlaps with
the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle.
• This phase lasts about 13 to 14 days.
 Stages Ovarian Cycle
II. Ovulatory Phase (Ovulation)
• Ovulation is the second phase of
the ovarian cycle in which a
mature egg is released from the
ovarian follicles into the oviduct.
• This phase usually lasts 16 – 32
hours
 Stages Ovarian Cycle
III. Luteal Phase
• The luteal phase is the final phase of the
ovarian cycle and it corresponds to the
secretory phase of the uterine cycle.
• During the luteal phase, the pituitary
hormones FSH and LH cause the remaining
parts of the dominant follicle to transform into
the corpus luteum, which produces
progesterone.
• The increased progesterone in the adrenals
starts to induce the production of estrogen.
• It last about 14 days, unless fertilization occur.
 Menstrual Cycle
• Is
the shedding of the lining of the
endometrium accompanied by
bleeding.
• Theaverage time for each
menstrual cycle is typically stated
as 28 days. However, it varies from
25 to 36 days.
 Stages Menstrual Cycle
I. Menstrual Flow Phase

• The lining of the endometrium is thick

with fluids and nutrients designed to
nourish the embryo.
• If there is no fertilization, the top layers of
the endometrium will shed and
menstruation bleeding occurs.
• Bleeding lasts for 3 to 7 days, averaging 5
days.
 Stages Menstrual Cycle
II. Proliferative Phase

• This is the regeneration and

thickening of the endometrium.
• The duration is about 1 to 2
weeks.
 Stages Menstrual Cycle
III. Secretory Phase

• The endometrium continues to thicken and

the vascularization of the endometrium
increases.
• The endometrium also develop glands that
secrete a glycogen-rich fluid to nourish a
potential fetus.
• This phase takes about 2 weeks.
• If by the end of the secretory phase an
embryo was not implanted in the uterus, a
new menstrual flow commences.
 Fertilization
Fertilization is a cell-cell recognition
process that occurs between two
distinct cells: a small asymmetric and
motile sperm cell and a large and
nonmotile egg.
 Stages of Fertilization
1. Preparation: Capacitation and acrosome
reaction. Acrosomal vesicle fusion is the
membrane fusion event of this stage.
2. Binding: Species-specific interaction of
gametes.
3. Fusion: Merging of sperm and egg plasma
membranes is the membrane fusion event of this
stage.
4. Activation (of the zygote): Cortical reaction
(fusion of cortical vesicles with the egg plasma
membrane) and pronuclear fusion.