Chapter 19

Reproductive System

The human species could not survive without functional male and female reproductive
systems.
The reproductive systems play essential roles in the development of the structural and
functional differences between males and females, influence human behavior, and
produce offspring.
However, a reproductive system, unlike other organ systems, is not necessary for the
survival of an individual human.

Reproductive System Functions

1. Production of gametes
2. Fertilization
3. Development and nourishment of a new individual
4. Production of reproductive hormones

Major Reproductive Organs

Formation of Gametes
Gametes:
• sex cells
• sperm in males
• oocytes (eggs) in females
Meiosis:
• a special type of cell division that leads to formation of sex cells
Each sperm cell and each oocyte contains 23 chromosomes

1. Before meiosis begins, all the chromosomes are duplicated.

2. At the beginning of meiosis, each of the 46 chromosomes consists of 2
chromatids connected by a centromere.
3. The chromosomes align as pairs in a process called synapsis.
4. Because each chromosome consists of 2 chromatids, the pairing of the
chromosomes brings 2 chromatids of each chromosome close together.
5. Genetic material is exchanged on occasion, when a part of a chromatid of 1
chromosome breaks off and is exchanged with part of another chromatid from
the other chromosome, in a process termed, crossing over.
6. Meiosis I produces 2 cells, each having 23 chromosomes composed of 2
chromatids joined at a centromere.
7. During Meiosis II, each of the 2 cells divide into 2 cells and the centromere
breaks, giving separate chromosomes.
8. The final result from meiosis are four cells, each having 23 chromosomes.
Since the number of chromosomes are reduced during the process of dividing into 4
cells, the process is a reduction division process.
Meiosis
From Fertilization to Fetus
Fertilization:
• union of sperm and oocyte
Zygote:
• what develops after fertilization
• develops into an embryo 3 to 14 days after fertilization
Embryo:
• 14 to 56 days after fertilization
Fetus:
• 56 days after fertilization

Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system consists of the testes, a series of ducts, accessory
glands, and supporting structures.
The ducts include the epididymis, the ductus deferens, and the urethra.
Accessory glands include the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the
bulbourethral glands.
Supporting structures include the scrotum and the penis.
 Male Reproductive Structures

Male Reproductive Organs

Scrotum:
• contains testes
• contains dartos muscle that moves scrotum and testes close to and away
from body depending on temp.
• sperm must develop at temp. less than body temp
Testes:
• primary male reproductive organ
• produces sperm
• in scrotum
• contain seminiferous tubules: where sperm is produced
• contain interstitial cells: secrete testosterone
• contain germ cells: cells that sperm cells arise from
• contain sustentacular cells: nourish germ cells and produce hormones
Epididymis:
• thread-like tubules on side of each testis
• where seminiferous tubules empty new sperm
• where sperm continue to mature develop ability to swim and bind to
oocytes
Ductus deferens:
• “vas deferens”
• extends from epididymis and joins seminal vesicle
• cut during a vasectomy
Urethra:
• extends from urinary bladder to end of penis
• passageway for urine and male reproductive fluids
Penis:
• corpus cavernosum, corpus spongiosum, spongy urethra:
• 3 columns of erectile tissue which fill with blood for erection
• transfer sperm from male to female
• excrete urine
Seminal Vesicles:
• next to ductus deferens
• helps form ejaculatory duct
Prostate gland:
• surrounds urethra
• size of a walnut
Bulbourethral gland:
• small mucus secreting glands near base of prostate gland
Male Reproductive Organs
Secretions
Semen:
• mixture of sperm and secretions from glands
• provides a transport medium and nutrients that
• protect and activate sperm
• 60% of fluid is from seminal vesicles
• 30% of fluid is from prostate gland
• 5% of fluid is from bulbourethral gland
• 5% of fluid is from testes
Seminal vesicles:
• provide fructose
• contain prostaglandins which decrease mucus thickness around cervix and
uterine tubes and help sperm move through female repro. tract
• contains coagulants that help deliver semen into female
Prostate gland:
• contains enzymes to liquefy semen after it is inside female
• neutralizes acidity of vagina
Bulbourethral gland:
• neutralize acidity of male urethra and female vagina
Testicular secretions:
• include sperm and small amount of fluid
2 to 5 milliliters of semen is ejaculated each time
1 milliliter of semen contains 100 million sperm
Sperm can live for 72 hours once inside female

Path of Sperm
1. Sperm develop in seminiferous tubules (testes)
2. Epididymis (mature)
 3. Ductus deferens
4. Receive secretions from seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral gland
5. Urethra where semen (sperm) exit body

Spermatogenesis:
• formation of sperm cells
• begins at puberty
• interstitial cells increase in number and size
• seminiferous tubules enlarge
• seminiferous tubules produce germ cells and sustentacular cells

Production of Sperm Cells

1. Germ cells
2. Spermatogonia
3. Primary spermatocytes
4. Secondary spermatocytes
5. Spermatids
6. Sperm cells
 Spermatogenesis

Sperm Cell Structure

Head:
• contain a nucleus and DNA
Midpiece:
• contain mitochondria
Tail:
• flagellum for movement
 Structure of the Testis and Sperm Cell

Male Sex Hormones

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is produced in the hypothalamus and
stimulates secretion of LH and FSH.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is produced in the anterior pituitary and stimulates secretion
of testosterone.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is produced in the anterior pituitary and prompts
spermatogenesis.
Testosterone is produced in the interstitial cells in the testes and is involved in
development and maintenance of reproductive organs.
Inhibin secreted by cells of the seminiferous tubules and inhibits FSH secretion.
 Male Reproductive Hormone Regulation

Male Puberty
Male puberty:
• sequence of events in which a boy begins to produce male hormones and
sperm cells
• begins at 12 to 14 and ends around 18
• testosterone is major male hormone
• secondary sexual characteristics develop:
Example - skin texture, fat distribution, hair growth, skeletal muscle growth, and larynx
changes

Male Sex Act

The male sex act is a complex series of reflexes that result in erection of the penis,
secretion of mucus into the urethra, emission, and ejaculation.
Emission is the movement of sperm cells, mucus, prostatic secretions, and seminal
vesicle secretions into the prostatic, membranous, and spongy urethra.
Ejaculation is the forceful expulsion of the secretions that have accumulated in the
urethra to the exterior.
Sensations, normally interpreted as pleasurable, occur during the male sex act and
result in an intense sensation called an orgasm.
A phase called resolution occurs after ejaculation in which the penis becomes flaccid,
an overall feeling of satisfaction exists, and the male is unable to achieve erection and a
second ejaculation.

Penile Erection
Erection is the first major component of the male sex act.
Neural stimuli cause the penis to enlarge and become firm.
Specifically, parasympathetic action potentials from the sacral region of the spinal cord
cause the arteries that supply blood to the erectile tissues to dilate.
Blood then fills small venous sinuses called sinusoids in the erectile tissue and
compresses the veins, which reduces blood flow from the penis.

Ejaculation results from the contraction of smooth muscle in the wall of the urethra
and skeletal muscles surrounding the base of the penis.
Just before ejaculation, action potentials are sent to the skeletal muscles that surround
the base of the penis.
Rhythmic contractions are produced that force the semen out of the urethra, resulting
in ejaculation.
In addition, muscle tension increases throughout the body.
Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive organs consist of the ovaries, the uterine tubes, the uterus,
the vagina, the external genitalia, and the mammary glands.
The internal reproductive organs of the female are located within the pelvis, between
the urinary bladder and the rectum.

Female Pelvis

Female Reproductive Organs

Female Reproductive Organs
Ovaries:
• primary female reproductive organ
• produces oocytes and sex hormones
• one on either side of uterus
• ovarian ligaments: anchor ovaries to uterus
• suspensory ligaments: anchor ovaries to pelvic cavity
• ovarian follicle: cells in ovaries that contain oocytes

Structure of Ovary and Ovarian Follicles

Uterine (Fallopian) tubes:
• part of uterus which extends toward ovaries and receive oocytes
• fimbriae are fringe-like structures around opening of uterine tubes that
help sweep oocyte into uterine tubes
• tubal ligation (sterilization of female)
Uterus:
• pear sized structure located in pelvic cavity
• functions: receive, retain, and provide nourishment for fertilized oocyte,
where embryo resides and develops
• body: main part
• cervix: narrow region that leads to vagina
Uterus wall layers:
• perimetrium (serous): outermost layer
• myometrium (muscular): middle layer
• composed of smooth muscle
• endometrium: innermost layer that is sloughed off during menstruation
Vagina:
• extends from uterus to outside of body
• female copulation organ that receives penis during intercourse
• allows menstrual flow
• involved in childbirth
• contains very muscular walls and a mucous membrane
• very acidic to keep bacteria out

External Female Genitalia

Vulva:
• external female sex organs
• mons pubis, labia majora and minora, clitoris, and vestibule
Mons pubis:
• fatty layer of skin covering pubic symphysis
Labia majora:
• larger, outer folds of skin
• equivalent to male scrotum
Labia minora:
• thin, inner folds of skin
Labia majora:
• larger, outer folds of skin
• equivalent to male scrotum
Labia minora:
• thin, inner folds of skin
Clitoris:
• small erectile structure located in vestibule
• equivalent to male penis
Prepuce:
• where 2 labia minora unite over clitoris
Vestibule:
• space in which vagina and urethra are located
 Female External Genitalia

Maturation of the Oocyte and Follicle

Ovulation
Ovulation:
• release of an oocyte from the ovary
• due to LH secreted from the anterior pituitary
Corpus luteum:
• mature follicle after ovulation
• degenerates if egg is not fertilized

Oogenesis and Fertilization

Females are born with all of their oogonia (2 million), unlike males that only begin to
produce sperm during puberty.
At puberty about 300,000 to 400,000 oogonia are left.
Puberty to menopause, FSH stimulates several follicles to begin developing during each
menstrual cycle but only 1 follicle should be ovulated.
Oocytes are swept into one of uterine tubes by fimbriae.
If sperm is present in uterine tube during ovulation oocyte could be fertilized.
If fertilization occurs then zygote implants in uterus.
Oocyte only lives for 24 hours, so if no sperm is present at ovulation no zygote
develops, and oocyte dies.

Female Puberty
Begins between 11 to 13 and is usually completed by 16
Menarche first episode of menstrual bleeding
Vagina, uterus, uterine tubes, and external genitalia to enlarge and fat is deposited in
breast and hips
Elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone are secreted by ovaries
Mammary Glands
Organs of milk production in breasts
Modified sweat glands
Female breasts begin to enlarge during puberty
Consists of lobes covered by adipose
Lobes, ducts, lobules are altered during lactation to expel milk

Anatomy of the Breast

Female Sex Hormones

Gonadotropin-releasing (GnRH) hormone is produced in the hypothalamus and
stimulates secretion of LH and FSH.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is produced in the anterior pituitary and causes ovulation.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is produced in the anterior pituitary and prompts
follicles in the ovaries to begin development.
Estrogen:
• proliferation of endometrial cells
• development of mammary glands (especially duct system)
• control of LH and FSH secretion
• development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics
Progesterone:
• enlargement of endometrial cells and secretion of fluid from uterine
glands
• maintenance of pregnancy state
• development of mammary glands (especially alveoli)
• control of estrogen, FSH, and LH secretion
• development of secondary sex characteristics

Menstrual Cycle
Menstrual cycle:
• series of changes that occur in sexually mature, nonpregnant females
Menses:
• time when endometrium is shed from uterus
Average is 28 days and results from cyclical changes that occur in endometrium

Stages of Menstrual Cycle

Days 1 to 5 Menses (shedding of endometrium)
• menstrual bleeding (menses)
• estrogen and progesterone levels are low
• follicle begins to mature

Days 6 to 13 Proliferative (between end of menses and ovulation)

• endometrium rebuilds
 • estrogen levels begin to increase
• progesterone levels remain low
• follicle matures

Day 14 Ovulation
• oocyte is released due to LH
• estrogen levels high
• progesterone levels are increasing
• cervical mucus thins

Days 15 to 28 Secretory (between ovulation and next menses)

• endometrium is preparing for implantation
• estrogen levels decrease (low)
• progesterone levels high
• cervical mucus thickens
 Menstrual Cycle

Menopause
• time when ovaries secrete less hormones and number of follicles in
ovaries is low
• menstrual cycle and ovulation are less regular
• hot flashes, fatigue, irritability may occur
• estrogen replacement therapy may be used to decreases side effects
Female Sexual Behavior
Sexual drive in females, like sexual drive in males, is dependent on hormones.
Testosterone-like hormones, and possibly estrogen, affect brain cells (especially in the
area of the hypothalamus) and influence sexual behavior.
Testosterone-like hormones are produced primarily in the adrenal cortex.
Psychological factors also play a role in sexual behavior.
The sensory and motor neural pathways involved in controlling female sexual responses
are similar to those found in the male.

Female Sex Act

During sexual excitement, erectile tissue within the clitoris and around the vaginal
opening becomes engorged with blood.
The mucous glands within the vestibule secrete small amounts of mucus, with larger
amounts extruded into the vagina through its wall.
Stimulation of the female’s genitals during sexual intercourse and psychological stimuli
normally trigger an orgasm, or climax.
The vaginal and uterine smooth muscle, as well as the surrounding skeletal muscles,
contract rhythmically, and muscle tension increases throughout much of the body.
After the sex act, there is a period of resolution, which is characterized by an overall
sense of satisfaction and relaxation.

Contraception
Many methods are used to prevent pregnancy, either by preventing fertilization
(contraception) or by preventing implantation of the developing embryo.
Methods include behavioral, barrier, chemical, and surgical.
Contraception