Chapter 16

Digestive System

Digestion and the Digestive System

 Digestion is the breakdown of large organic molecules into smaller molecules
that can be absorbed.
 The digestive system performs the task of digestion.
 Food is taken into the digestive system, where it is enzymatically broken down
into smaller and smaller particles for absorption.

Digestive System Functions

1. Ingestion of solids and liquids
2. Digestion of organic molecules
3. Absorption of nutrients
4. Elimination of waste

Digestive System
The digestive system consists of the digestive tract, plus specific associated organs.
The digestive tract is also referred to as the GI (gastrointestinal tract)
The tract is one long tube from the mouth to the anus.

Digestive Tract Components

The digestive tract consists of the:
• oral cavity (mouth)
• pharynx
• esophagus
• stomach
• small intestines
• large intestines
• rectum
• anus

Associated Organs
The digestive system includes some associated organs not directly in the digestive tract,
but have ducts that lead into the tract.
These associated organs are the:
• salivary glands
• liver
• gallbladder
• pancreas

Layers of Digestive Tract Wall

The layers of the tract wall are also termed tunics.
1. Mucosa:
• innermost layer
 • secretes mucus
2. Submucosa:
• above mucosa
• contains blood vessels, nerves, small glands
3. Muscularis:
• above submucosa
• longitudinal, circular, and oblique muscles
4. Serosa/adventitia:
• outermost layer
• peritoneum is present called serosa
• no peritoneum then called adventitia

Digestive Tract Histology

Peritoneum
Layer of smooth epithelial tissue
Mesenteries:
• connective tissue of organs in abdominal cavity
Lesser omentum:
• mesentery connecting lesser curvature of stomach to liver and diaphragm
Greater omentum:
• mesentery connecting greater curvature of stomach to transverse colon
and posterior body wall

Peritoneum and Mesenteries

Oral Cavity
- First part of digestive system
- Contains stratified squamous epithelia
Salivary glands:
• produce saliva which contains enzymes to breakdown carbohydrates into
glucose
• cleanse mouth
• dissolve and moisten food
Amylase:
• salivary enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates
Lysozyme:
• salivary enzymes that are active against bacteria
Tongue:
• house taste buds and mucus

Oral Cavity
Teeth
- 32 teeth in normal adult
Incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom
- 20 primary teeth (baby teeth)
• Each tooth has crown, cusp, neck, root
• Center of tooth is pulp cavity
• Enamel is hard covering protects against abrasions
• Cavities are breakdown of enamel by acids from bacteria
 Molar Tooth in Place in the Alveolar Bone

Palate:
• roof of oral cavity
- Hard palate:
• anterior part
- Soft palate:
• posterior part

Salivary Glands:
• includes submandibular, sublingual, parotid
• produce saliva contains enzymes to breakdown food
 • mumps is inflammation of parotid gland

Pharynx
Throat
- Connects the mouth to the esophagus
- It has three parts:
• nasopharynx
• oropharynx
• laryngopharynx

Esophagus
- Tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
- Transports food to the stomach
- Joins stomach at cardiac opening
Heartburn:
• occurs when gastric juices regurgitate into esophagus
• caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating or drinking in excess
Swallowing
Voluntary phase:
• bolus (mass of food) formed in mouth and pushed into oropharynx
Pharyngeal phase:
• swallowing reflex initiated when bolus stimulates receptors in oropharynx
Esophageal phase:
• moves food from pharynx to stomach
Peristalsis:
• wave-like contractions moves food through digestive tract

Events during the Three Phases of Swallowing

 Peristalsis

Stomach
- Located in abdomen
- Storage tank for food
- Can hold up to 2 liters of food
- Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes
- Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and protects epithelial cells on
stomach wall form acidic pH (3)
3 muscular layers:
• outer longitudinal, middle circular, and inner oblique to produce churning
action
Rugae:
• large folds that allow stomach to stretch
Chyme:
• paste-like substance that forms when food begins to be broken down

Pyloric opening:
• opening between stomach and small intestine
Pyloric sphincter:
• thick, ring of smooth muscle around pyloric opening
Hunger pangs:
• stomach is stimulated to contract by low blood glucose levels usually 12-
24 hours after a meal

Anatomy and Histology of the Stomach

Regulation of Stomach Secretions
Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin, histamine increase stomach secretions
Cephalic phase:
• 1st phase
• stomach secretions are initiated by sight, smell, taste, or food thought
Gastric phase:
• 2nd phase
• partially digested proteins and distention of stomach promote secretion
Intestinal phase:
• 3rd phase
• acidic chyme stimulates neuronal reflexes and secretions of hormones that
inhibit gastric secretions by negative feedback loops

Cephalic Phase of Stomach Control

 Gastric Phase of Stomach Control

Intestinal Phase of Stomach Control

Movement in Stomach
Mixing waves:
• weak contraction
• thoroughly mix food to form chyme
Peristaltic waves:
• stronger contraction
• force chyme toward and through pyloric sphincter
Hormonal and neural mechanisms stimulate stomach secretions
Stomach empties every 4 hours after regular meal, and 6 to 8 hours after high fatty
meal
Small Intestine
- Measures 6 meters in length
- Major absorptive organ
- Chyme takes 3 to 5 hours to pass through
- Contains enzymes to further breakdown food
- Contains secretions for protection against the acidity of chyme

Parts of Small Intestine

Duodenum:
• first part
• 25 cm long
• contains absorptive cells, goblet cells, granular cells, endocrine cells
• contains microvilli and many folds
• contains bile and pancreatic ducts

Jejunum:
• second part
• 2.5 meters long and absorbs nutrients

Ileum:
• third part
• 3.5 meters long
 Small Intestine

Mucosa of the Small Intestine

The mucosa of the small intestine is simple columnar epithelium with four major cell
types.
1. Absorptive cells, which have microvilli, produce digestive enzymes, and absorb
digested food
2. Goblet cells, which produce a protective mucus
3. Granular cells, which may help protect the intestinal epithelium from bacteria;
and
4. Endocrine cells, which produce regulatory hormones.
The epithelial cells are located within tubular glands of the mucosa, called intestinal
glands or crypts of Lieberkühn, at the base of the villi.
Granular and endocrine cells are located in the bottom of the glands.
The submucosa of the duodenum contains mucous glands, called duodenal glands,
which open into the base of the intestinal glands.
Secretions of the Small Intestine
The epithelial cells in the walls of the small intestine have enzymes bound to their free
surfaces.
Peptidases enzymatically breakdown proteins into amino acids for absorption.
Disaccharidases enzymatically breakdown disaccharides into monosaccharides for
absorption.

Anatomy and Histology of the Duodenum

Movement in the Small Intestine
Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary mechanical events that occur in the
small intestine.
Peristaltic contractions proceed along the length of the intestine for variable
distances and cause the chyme to move along the small intestine.
Segmental contractions are propagated for only short distances and mix intestinal
contents.
The ileocecal sphincter at the juncture of the ileum and the large intestine remains
mildly contracted most of the time.
Peristaltic contractions reaching the ileocecal sphincter from the small intestine cause
the sphincter to relax and allow chyme to move from the small intestine into the cecum.
The ileocecal valve prevents movement from the large intestine back into the ileum.

Segmental Contractions in the Small Intestine

Liver Anatomy
- Weighs about 3 lbs.
- Located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen under the diaphragm
- Consists of right, left, caudate, and quadrate lobes
Porta:
• gate where blood vessels, ducts, nerves enter and exit
Receives arterial blood from the hepatic artery

LIVER
Lobules:
• divisions of liver with portal triads at corners
Portal triad:
• contain hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, hepatic duct
Hepatic cords:
• between center margins of each lobule
• separated by hepatic sinusoids
Hepatic sinusoids:
• contain phagocytic cells that remove foreign particles from blood
Central vein:
• center of each lobule
• where mixed blood flows towards
• forms hepatic veins

Liver Ducts
Hepatic duct:
• transport bile out of liver
Common hepatic duct:
• formed from left and right hepatic duct
Cystic duct:
• joins common hepatic duct
• from gallbladder
Common bile duct:
• formed from common hepatic duct and cystic duct
 Bile and Pancreatic Secretions

Functions of the Liver

- Digestive and excretory functions
- Stores and processes nutrients
- Detoxifies harmful chemicals
- Synthesizes new molecules
- Secretes 700 milliliters of bile each day
Bile:
• dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid and breaks down fats
 Control of Bile Secretion and Release

Pancreas
- Located posterior to stomach in inferior part of left upper quadrant
- Head near midline of body
- Tail extends to left and touches spleen
- Endocrine tissues have pancreatic islets that produce insulin and glucagon
- Exocrine tissues produce digestive enzymes that travel through ducts
Pancreatic Secretions
The major protein-digesting enzymes are:
1. Trypsin
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase
Pancreatic amylase continues the polysaccharide digestion that began in the oral cavity.
The pancreatic enzyme lipase is a lipid-digesting enzyme.
The pancreatic nuclease enzymes degrade DNA and RNA to their component
nucleotides.

Duodenum and Pancreas

 Control of Pancreatic Secretions

Large Intestine
Function is to absorb water from indigestible food
Contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
Cecum:
• joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
• has appendix attached
Appendix:
• 9 cm structure that is often removed
Colon:
• 1.5 meters long
• contains ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid regions
Rectum:
• straight tube that begins at sigmoid and ends at anal canal
Anal canal:
• last 2 to 3 cm of dig. tract
Food takes 18-24 hours to pass through
Feces is product of water, indigestible food, and microbes
Microbes synthesize vitamin K

Digestive Process
1. Digestion:
• breakdown of food occurs in stomach and mouth
2. Propulsion:
• moves food through digestive tract includes swallowing and peristalsis
3. Absorption:
• primarily in duodenum and jejunum of small intestine
4. Defecation:
• elimination of waste in the form of feces

Digestion

Digestion of Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins

Carbohydrate Digestion
- Polysaccharides split into disaccharides by salivary and pancreatic amylases
- Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides by disaccharidases on the
surface of intestinal epithelium
- Glucose is absorbed by cotransport with Na+ into the intestinal epithelium
- Glucose is carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver and enters most cells by
facilitated diffusion

Transport of Glucose across the Intestinal Epithelium

Lipid Digestion
- Lipase breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides.
- Bile salts surround fatty acids and monoglycerides to form micelles.
- Micelles attach to the plasma membranes of intestinal epithelial cells, and the
fatty acids and monoglycerides pass by simple diffusion into the intestinal
epithelial cells.
- Within the intestinal epithelial cell, the fatty acids and monoglycerides are
converted to triglycerides.
- Proteins coat the triglycerides to form chylomicrons, which move out of the
intestinal epithelial cells by exocytosis.
 - The chylomicrons enter the lacteals of the intestinal villi and are carried through
the lymphatic system to the blood.

Transport of Lipids Across the intestinal Epithelium

Lipoproteins
Lipids are packaged into lipoproteins to allow transport in the lymph and blood.
Lipoproteins are molecules that are part water soluble and part lipid soluble.
Since lymph and blood contain water and lipids are not water soluble, lipoproteins are
necessary for transport.
Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density
lipoproteins (HDL).
 Lipoproteins

Protein Digestion
Pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the stomach.
The pancreas secretes trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase into the small
intestine in an inactive state.
In the small intestines these enzymes are activated.
In the small intestine, other enzymes termed peptidases, bound to the microvilli of the
intestinal epithelium further break down small peptides into tripeptides.
Absorption of tripeptides, dipeptides, or individual amino acids occurs through the
intestinal epithelial cells by various cotransport mechanisms.
 Transport of Amino Acids across the Intestinal Epithelium

Water and Minerals

Water can move across the intestinal wall in either direction
The movement depends on osmotic pressures
99% of water entering intestine is absorbed
Minerals are actively transported across wall of small intestine

Fluid Volumes in the Digestive Tract