Chapter 17

Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body Temperature Regulation

Nutrition
- is the process by which food is taken into and used by the body; it includes digestion,
absorption, transport, and metabolism.
The study of nutrition involves the study of the food and drink requirements for normal
body function.
Nutrients are the chemicals taken into the body that provide energy and building blocks
for new molecules.

MyPlate
Every 5 years, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) jointly make recommendations on what Americans
should eat to be healthy.
In June 2011, the USDA also introduced MyPlate, a new food icon to replace the former
food guide icon, called MyPyramid.
MyPlate is a simple visual reminder of how to build a healthy meal.
The MyPlate icon shows a plate and glass with portions representing foods from the
fruits, vegetables, grains, proteins, and dairy food groups.
To emphasize the importance of making healthy food choices, half the plate is fruits
and vegetables.
In addition to the MyPlate icon, the USDA also launched ChooseMyPlate.gov, a
website that includes information on how to make healthy dietary choices.

Kilocalories
Calorie (cal):
• the amount of energy required to raise the temp. of 1 gram of water 1 o C
Kilocalorie (kcal):
• 1000 calories

Nutrients can be divided into six major classes:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
6. Water
A balanced diet consists of enough nutrients in the correct proportions to support
normal body functions.
Essential nutrients are nutrients that must be ingested because the body cannot
manufacture them—or it cannot manufacture them in adequate amounts.
The essential nutrients include certain amino acids, certain fatty acids, most vitamins,
minerals, water, and some carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates
Contain C, H, O
H:O is a 2:1 ratio
• Example - C6H12O6
Include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
Monosaccharide:
• simple sugar (1 sugar)
• Example - glucose and fructose
Disaccharide:
• 2 sugars
• Example - glucose + fructose = sucrose
• Example - glucose + galactose=lactose
Polysaccharide:
• many sugars
• Example - starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen

Types of Carbohydrates
Simple:
• no nutritional value
• cause weight gain
• Example - candy and soft drinks (9 tea. sugar)
• Recommended amount: sparingly
Complex:
• fiber helps decrease colon cancer and heart disease
• Example - whole grains, pastas, rice, bread
• Recommended amount: at every meal
• Serving 1 piece of bread, ½ cup uncooked pasta

Functions of Carbohydrates
Short-term energy storage
Converted to glucose quickly
Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
Brain cells require glucose

Lipids
Fats are saturated if their fatty acids have only single covalent bonds between carbon
atoms.
Fats are unsaturated if they have one or more double bonds.
Monounsaturated fats have one double bond, and polyunsaturated fats have two or
more double bonds.
Saturated fats are found in meat, dairy products, eggs, nuts, coconut oil, and palm
oil.
Monounsaturated fats include olive and peanut oils.
Polyunsaturated fats are found in fish, safflower, sunflower, and corn oils.

Saturated versus Unsaturated Fats

Unsaturated:
• “better” for us
• liquid at room temp.
Saturated:
• “bad” for us
• solid at room temp.

Trans Fatty Acids

Trans:
• processed fats and oils
• raise LDL and lower HDL
• increase heart disease

Cholesterol:
 • a steroid
• high conc. in brain, liver, egg yolks, whole milk, cheese, butter, meats
LDL cholesterol:
• low density lipoprotein
• “bad” cholesterol
• carries cholesterol from liver to cells
HDL cholesterol:
• high density lipoprotein
• “good” cholesterol
• carries cholesterol from cells to liver
• (processed)
• increase HDL through exercise

Lipids and Diet

Recommended amount:
• sparingly for saturated fats
• cholesterol 300 mg/day (1 egg yolk)
Lipids can:
• cause weight gain and heart disease
• increase risk of colon and pancreatic cancer

Reducing Fat and Cholesterol

 Eat poultry, fish, and beans
 Eat vegetables and fruits high in fiber
 Use herbs and spices for seasonings
 Remove skin
 Broil, bake, grill
 Limit creams and butter
 Avoid processed cheese, egg yolks, liver
Functions of Lipids
 Long term energy storage
 Insulates against heat loss
 Protective cushion for organs
 Cholesterol is part of cell membrane struc

Proteins
- are chains of amino acids and are found in most of the plant and animal products
eaten.
 Proteins in the body are constructed of 20 different kinds of amino acids, which
are divided into two groups: essential and nonessential amino acids.
 The body cannot synthesize essential amino acids, so they must be obtained in
the diet.
 The nine essential amino acids are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
 A complete protein food contains all nine essential amino acids in the needed
proportions, whereas an incomplete protein food does not.
 Animal proteins tend to be complete proteins, whereas plant proteins tend to be
incomplete.
 Some plant-based foods, such as soy and quinoa, are sources of complete
proteins.
Amino acids aren’t stored so a daily supply is required.
Recommended amount:
• 1 to 2 servings dairy group; 1 to 3 servings nuts/beans; 0 to 2 servings fish,
poultry, eggs; red meat sparingly
• Serving 2 to 3 oz.

Functions of Proteins
• Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles
• Hemoglobin
• Act as enzymes
• Immune system functions
• Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
 • Part of cell membrane

Vitamins
Organic molecules in small quantities in food needed for metabolism
Balance diet gives body variety of vitamins
Absence of vitamins results in deficiency diseases
- Fat or water soluble
Fat soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Water soluble include the B-complex and C.
Essential vitamins cannot be produced by the body and must be obtained through the
diet.
A provitamin is a part of a vitamin that the body can assemble or modify into a
functional vitamin, such as the conversion in the body to the active form of vitamin D.
Most vitamins function as coenzymes, which combine with enzymes to make the
enzymes functional

Recommended Dietary Allowances

The Food and Nutrition Board established the Recommended Dietary Allowances
(RDAs), which are the nutrient intakes that are sufficient to meet the needs of nearly all
people in certain age and gender groups.
RDAs were established for different-aged males and females, starting with infants and
continuing on to adults.
RDAs were also set for pregnant and lactating women.
Vitamin A
A (retinol)
• from provitamin carotene found in yellow and green vegetables;
preformed in liver, egg yolk, butter, and milk
• necessary for rhodopsin synthesis, normal health of epithelial cells, and
bone and tooth growth
• deficiency causes rhodopsin deficiency, night blindness, retarded growth,
skin disorders, and increased infection risk

Vitamin B1
B1 (thiamine)
• found in yeast, grains, and milk
• involved in carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism; necessary for
growth
• deficiency causes beriberi—muscle weakness (including cardiac muscle),
neuritis, and paralysis

Vitamin B2
B2 (riboflavin)
• found in green vegetables, liver, wheat germ, milk, and eggs
• component of flavin adenine dinucleotide; involved in citric acid cycle
• deficiency causes eye disorders and skin cracking, especially at corners of
the mouth

Vitamin B3
B3 (niacin)
• found in fish, liver, red meat, yeast, grains, peas, beans, and nuts
• deficiency causes pellagra—diarrhea, dermatitis, and nervous system
disorder
Pantothenic Acid
• found in liver, yeast, green vegetables, grains, and intestinal bacteria
• constituent of coenzyme-A; glucose production from lipids and amino
acids; steroid hormone synthesis
• deficiency causes neuromuscular dysfunction and fatigue

Biotin
• found in liver, yeast, eggs, and intestinal bacteria
• fatty acid and nucleic acid synthesis; movement of pyruvic acid into citric
acid cycle
• deficiency causes mental and muscle dysfunction, fatigue, and nausea

Vitamin B6
B6 (pyridoxine)
• found in fish, liver, yeast, tomatoes, and intestinal bacteria
• involved in amino acid metabolism
• deficiency causes dermatitis, retarded growth, and nausea

Vitamin B9
Folate
• found in liver, green leafy vegetables, and intestinal bacteria
• nucleic acid synthesis; hematopoiesis; prevents birth defects
• deficiency causes macrocytic anemia (enlarged red blood cells) and spina
bifida

Vitamin B12
B12 (cobalamins)
• found in liver, red meat, milk, and eggs
 • necessary for red blood cell production, some nucleic acid and amino
acid metabolism
• deficiency causes pernicious anemia and nervous system disorders

Vitamin C
(Ascorbic acid)
• found in citrus fruit, tomatoes, and green vegetables
• collagen synthesis; general protein metabolism
• deficiency causes scurvy—defective bone formation and poor wound
healing

Vitamin D
(Cholecalciferol)
• found in fish liver oil, enriched milk, and eggs; provitamin D converted by
sunlight to cholecalciferol in the skin
• promotes calcium and phosphorus use; normal growth and bone and
tooth formation
• deficiency causes rickets—poorly developed, weak bones, osteomalacia;
bone reabsorption

Vitamin E
(Tocopherol)
• found in wheat germ; cottonseed, palm, and rice oils; grain; liver; and
lettuce
• prevents oxidation of cell membranes and DNA
• deficiency causes hemolysis of red blood cells
Vitamin K
(phylloquinone)
• found in alfalfa, liver, spinach, vegetable oils, cabbage, and intestinal
bacteria
• required for synthesis of a number of clotting factors
• deficiency causes excessive bleeding due to retarded blood clotting

Mineral
- are inorganic nutrients that are essential for normal metabolic functions.
- Minerals include calcium, chlorine, chromium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron,
magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorous, potassium, selenium, sodium,
sulfur, and zinc.

Daily Values
Appear on food labels to help people eat healthy
Based on 2000 kilocalorie diet
60% carbs, 30% total fats, 10% sat. fats, 10% proteins
Used to calculate Percent Daily Value

RDI and DRV

Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) are based on the 1968 RDAs for certain vitamins and
minerals.
Daily Reference Values (DRVs) are set for total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, total
carbohydrate, dietary fiber, sodium, potassium, and protein.
 Food Labels

Metabolism
- is the total of all the chemical reactions that occur in the body.
- It consists of catabolism, the energy-releasing process by which large molecules are
broken down into smaller ones.
- Anabolism is the energy-requiring process by which small molecules are joined to form
larger ones.
Types of Metabolism
Anabolism (synthesis):
• energy-requiring process
• Example - ADP + P  ATP
Catabolism (decomposition):
• energy-releasing process
• Example - ATP  ADP + P

ATP Derived from Catabolic Reactions

Drives Anabolic Reactions
ATP
- Adenosine Triphosphate
- Energy carrier
Energy is released when ATP is broken down
Some ATP is produced in the cytoplasm
Most ATP is produced in the mitochondria

Carbohydrate Metabolism
Monosaccharides are the breakdown products of carbohydrate digestion, with the most
important being glucose.
Any excess glucose in the blood following a meal can be used to form glycogen, or it
can be partially broken down and the components used to form lipids.
The metabolism of carbohydrates involves anaerobic and aerobic respiration, with
glycolysis being anaerobic and the citric acid cycle, being aerobic.

Glycolysis
- is a series of chemical reactions that occurs in the cytoplasm.
- It results in the breakdown of glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules.
When glucose is converted to pyruvic acid, two ATP molecules are used and four ATP
molecules are produced, for a net gain of two ATP molecules.

Anaerobic Respiration
- is the breakdown of glucose in the absence of O2.
In human cells, anaerobic respiration results in the production of two molecules of
lactate and two molecules of ATP.

Anaerobic respiration can be divided into two phases:

Glycolysis:
• glucose undergoes several reactions to produce two pyruvic acid molecules, two
ATP, and two NADH.
Lactate formation:
• pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid and converted to lactate, the ionized form
of lactic acid.

Glycolysis and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration
- is the breakdown of glucose in the presence of O2 to produce CO2, water, and 38
molecules of ATP.
Aerobic respiration can be divided into four phases:
Glycolysis:
• glucose undergoes several reactions to produce two pyruvic acid molecules, two
ATP, and two NADH.

AcetylCoA formation:
• each pyruvate acid moves from the cytoplasm into the mitochondrion, where
they are converted into acetylCoA.

Citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle:

• each acetylCoA molecule enters the citric acid cycle where NADH, FADH 2, and
ATP is formed

Electron transport chain:

• a series of electron-transport molecules attached to the inner
mitochondrial membrane
• Electrons are transferred from NADH and FADH2 to the electron-transport
carriers, and H+ is released into the inner mitochondrial compartment.
• Some of the electron-transport carriers are also H+ pumps, which use
some of the energy from the transported electrons to pump H+ from the
inner to the outer mitochondrial compartment.
• outer compartment, the H+ passes by diffusion back into the inner
compartment.
• The H+ passes through channels in the inner mitochondrial membrane
that couple the movement of the H+ to ATP production
• Without O2 to accept the H+ and electrons, the citric acid cycle and the
electron-transport chain cannot function.
 Aerobic Respiration

Electron-Transport Chain
Lipid Metabolism
 Triglycerides are body’s main energy storage molecules
 Between meals triglycerides are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol
 Metabolism occurs in mitochondria
 Series of reactions where 2 Carbons are removed for fatty acids to form acetyl-
CoA
 Acetyl-CoA combines to form ketones
 Too many ketones leads to acidosis in blood

Protein Metabolism
 Proteins are digested into amino acids
 Amino acids are taken up by liver
 Amino acids are used to make needed proteins
 Amino acids can be converted into pyruvic acid and acetyl-CoA
 Metabolism results in ammonia which is converted to urea (liver)

Overall Pathways for the Metabolism of Food

Metabolic States
Absorptive state:
• period immediately after a meal
• nutrients absorbed through intestinal wall
• into circulation and lymphatic systems
• 4 hours after meal
• glucose goes to cells and some glycogen and fat
• fats into adipose
• amino acids used in protein synthesis
Postabsorptive state:
• late in morning, late afternoon, or night after
• absorptive state
• blood glucose levels maintained by converting molecules to glucose
• first source glucose is liver
• triglycerides converted to glucose
• amino acids converted to glucose

Events of the Absorptive State

Events of the Postabsorptive State

Metabolic rate:
• total amount of energy produced and use in body per unit of time
• basal metabolic rate: energy needed to keep resting body functional
• used to determine amount of kilocalories need per day

Body Temperature Regulation

Average body temp. is 98.6o F
Maintained by balancing heat input with heat loss
Amount of heat exchanged between environment and body is determined by difference
in temps.

Mechanisms for Body Heat Loss

Radiation:
• gain or loss of heat as infrared energy between 2 objects not in physical contact
• Example - sun, hot sand, snow
Conduction:
• exchange of heat between objects that in direct contact
• Example - contact of the bottom of the feet and the ground
Convection:
• transfer of heat between body and air or water
• Example - cool breeze over body
Evaporation:
• conversion of water from liquid to gas
• Example - water from body surface
Heat Exchange