HOME

‘X-Ray Plunge Projection’ –

Understanding Structural Geology
from Grade Data
E J Cowan1,2

ABSTRACT
7KLVSDSHULQWURGXFHVDQHZGRZQSOXQJHSURMHFWLRQPHWKRGWKDWDOORZVJHRORJLVWVWRUDSLGO\GHWHUPLQHWKHÀUVWRUGHUVWUXFWXUDO
JHRPHWULHVRIPLQHUDOGHSRVLWV7KHPHWKRGDVVXPHVWKDWWKHPLQHUDOLVHGERGLHVXQGHUDQDO\VLVUHVXOWHGZKHQK\GURWKHUPDO
ÁXLGVÁRZHGWKURXJKKLJKO\SHUPHDEOH]RQHVWKDWZHUHIRUPHGIURPGHIRUPDWLRQ7KHUHIRUHWKHJUDGHSDWWHUQVVKRXOGPLPLF
WKHVLJQLÀFDQWVWUXFWXUHVWKDWFRQWUROOHGWKHÁXLGÁRZ2QFHWKHVHVWUXFWXUDOJHRPHWULHVDUHGHWHUPLQHGWKHSDWWHUQVFDQEH
XVHGWRVLPSOLI\VSHHGXSDQGVXEVWDQWLDOO\LQFUHDVHWKHDFFXUDF\RIWKHJHRORJLFDOPRGHOOLQJSURFHVVHVRIERWKH[SOLFLWDQG
LPSOLFLWPHWKRGVRIPRGHOOLQJ
'RZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ RU GRZQVWUXFWXUH PHWKRG LV D ZD\ WR H[DPLQH VWUXFWXUHV RQ D JHRORJLFDO PDS E\ RULHQWDWLQJ LW
VRDVWRORRNGRZQLQWRDQGDORQJWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHSOXQJLQJVWUXFWXUDOIHDWXUHVVXFKDVIROGVDQGIDXOWLQWHUVHFWLRQV7KLV
PHWKRGRIGHULYLQJWUXHVHFWLRQDOJHRORJLFDOVWUXFWXUDOJHRPHWULHVIURPDQREOLTXHYLHZLQJDQJOHKDVEHHQNQRZQWRJHRORJLVWV
IRUPRUHWKDQ\HDUVKRZHYHUWKLVSUDFWLFDOWHFKQLTXHKDVQRWEHHQH[WHQVLYHO\XVHGLQWKHÀHOGRIHFRQRPLFJHRORJ\HYHQ
WKRXJKWKHDSSOLFDWLRQLVYHU\EURDGDQGUHOHYDQWWRWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIJUDGHGLVWULEXWLRQLQPLQHUDOGHSRVLWV7KLVFHQWXU\
ROGJUDSKLFDOPHWKRGRORJ\LVUHLQWURGXFHGLQWKLVSDSHUE\FRPELQLQJLWZLWKDFRPSXWHUUHQGHULQJWHFKQLTXHFDOOHGPD[LPXP
LQWHQVLW\SURMHFWLRQ 0,3 0,3LVD'SURMHFWLRQPHWKRGWKDWGLVSOD\VWKHKLJKHVWYDOXHSRLQWRIDSRLQWFORXGDORQJDOLQHRI
VLJKWRUWKRJRQDOWRWKHFRPSXWHUVFUHHQ7KLVDOORZVWKHJHRORJLVWWR¶VHHWKURXJK·DGHQVH'JUDGHSRLQWFORXGRQDFRPSXWHU
PRQLWRUDQGDLGVVWUXFWXUDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHGHWDLOVRIWKHKLJKJUDGHFRUHWKDWLVVXUURXQGHGE\ORZJUDGHYDOXHV%HFDXVH
WKHUHQGHULQJPHWKRGDSSHDUVWRDOORZWKHVNHOHWDOFRUHRIDJUDGHGDWDVHWWREHYLVXDOLVHGWKURXJKDORZJUDGHVXUURXQGLQJLW
LVLQIRUPDOO\WHUPHGWKH¶;UD\·PHWKRGRIJUDGHGDWDYLVXDOLVDWLRQ
2ULJLQDOO\GHYHORSHGIRUWKHPHGLFDOLQGXVWU\LQ0,3LVKLJKO\UHOHYDQWIRULQWHUSUHWLQJGULOOKROHVDPSOHGJUDGHGDWD
$JHRORJLVWZLWKVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDODQDO\WLFDOH[SHULHQFHFDQUDSLGO\LGHQWLI\WKHVWUXFWXUDOFRQWUROVRIPLQHUDOGHSRVLWVRIWHQ
ZLWKLQPLQXWHVRIYLHZLQJWKHGDWDVLPSO\E\DSSO\LQJWKH;UD\YLHZDQGDOVRYLHZLQJSDUDOOHOWRWKHGRZQSOXQJHGLUHFWLRQ
6XFK UDSLG DQG DFFXUDWH JHRORJLFDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV XVLQJ ;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ DUH QRW SRVVLEOH ZLWK IXOO ' PRGHOOLQJ
PHWKRGV LQFOXGLQJLPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJ ZKLFKDUHUHODWLYHO\PRUHFRPSOH[DQGH[SHQVLYHWKDQ0,3KRZHYHUZKHQFRPELQHG
ZLWKHLWKHUH[SOLFLWRULPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJWKH;UD\SOXQJHSURMHFWLRQWHFKQLTXHFDQUHVXOWLQYHU\DFFXUDWHJHRORJLFDOPRGHOV
IRUUHVRXUFHHYDOXDWLRQSXUSRVHV
:KLOHWKHJHRORJLVWUHTXLUHVQRH[SHULHQFHLQ'PRGHOOLQJUHOHYDQWWKHRUHWLFDONQRZOHGJHRIVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDODQGÀHOG
H[SHULHQFHLVHVVHQWLDOIRUWKHDFFXUDWHXVHRI;UD\SOXQJHSURMHFWLRQ:LWKRXWDSSURSULDWHVWUXFWXUDOH[SHULHQFHLWLVGLIÀFXOWWR
LQWHUSUHWWKHUDQJHRISRVVLEOHVWUXFWXUDOVFHQDULRVWKDWFRXOGEHFRQWUROOLQJWKHJUDGHGLVWULEXWLRQLQDPLQHUDOGHSRVLW
$VWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDOIUDPHZRUNGHWHUPLQHGIURP;UD\SOXQJHSURMHFWLRQLVDQHVVHQWLDOUHTXLUHPHQWIRUDFFXUDWHJHRORJLFDO
PRGHOOLQJXVLQJLPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJVRIWZDUH:LWKRXWWKLVIUDPHZRUNWKHJHRORJLFDOPRGHOOLQJLVOHIWHQWLUHO\WRDOJRULWKPLF
PHWKRGVRIPRGHOOLQJZKLFKDUHRIWHQGHYRLGRIJHRORJLFDOORJLFDQGDUHXQOLNHO\WR\LHOGJHRORJLFDOO\VHQVLEOHUHVXOWV7KHVH
¶EODFNER[·PHWKRGVDUHEHFRPLQJWKHSULPDU\ZRUNÁRZVLPSOHPHQWHGLQWKHGHVLJQRILPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJVRIWZDUHSURGXFWV
EXWLIOHIWXQFKHFNHGVXFKPRGHOOLQJSUDFWLFHVDUHOLNHO\WRJUHDWO\LQFUHDVHWKHFKDQFHRIJHRORJLFDOPLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIGDWD
ZKLFKLQWXUQZLOODGYHUVHO\DIIHFWWKHUHVRXUFHHYDOXDWLRQRIPLQHUDOGHSRVLWV

1. FAusIMM, Principal Structural Geologist, Director, Orefind Pty Ltd, PO Box 230, Fremantle WA 6959. Email: jun.cowan@orefind.com
2. Adjunct Senior Research Fellow, School of Geosciences, Monash University, Clayton Vic 3800.

INTRODUCTION
0LQLQJ DQG H[SORUDWLRQ FRPSDQLHV ZRXOG EHQHÀW LI WKH
VWUXFWXUDOFRQWH[WRIDQ\PLQHUDOGHSRVLW²DWWKHVFDOHRIWKH
GHSRVLW ² FRXOG EH REWDLQHG UDSLGO\ ZLWK OLWWOH HIIRUW 1RW
RQO\ ZRXOG WKLV IDVWWUDFN UHVRXUFH HYDOXDWLRQ DV LW ZRXOG
KLJKOLJKW D JHRPHWULF DQG VWUXFWXUDO IUDPHZRUN WR JXLGH
PRGHOOLQJ DQG JUDGH HVWLPDWLRQ EXW LW ZRXOG DOVR EHQHÀW
QHDUPLQHH[SORUDWLRQ7KLVSDSHUUHLQWURGXFHVDFHQWXU\ROG
PDSSLQJSURMHFWLRQPHWKRGDQGFRPELQHVLWZLWKD\HDU
ROG FRPSXWHU UHQGHULQJ PHWKRG WKDW WRJHWKHU DFKLHYHV WKLV
WDVNTXLFNO\DQGHIIRUWOHVVO\7KLVQHZWHFKQLTXHGHVFULEHGLQ
WKLVSDSHUKDVEHHQXVHGE\WKHDXWKRULQWKHSDVWGHFDGHRQ
PRUHWKDQPLQHUDOGHSRVLWVDQGLWKDVEHHQYHU\HIIHFWLYH
IRU UDSLGO\ GHWHUPLQLQJ VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO FRQWUROV DQG
DVVLVWLQJ LQ WKH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ DQG PRGHOOLQJ RI PLQHUDO
GHSRVLWVRIYDULRXVFRPPRGLWLHV

Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation 207

Chapter 3 | Geological Interpretation and Geological Modelling
*HRORJLVWV ZKR LQWHUSUHW GULOO KROH GDWD DQG FRQVWUXFW
JHRORJLFDO PRGHOV IRU WKH SXUSRVHV RI UHVRXUFH HYDOXDWLRQ
RIWHQDVNKRZVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDOGDWDFRXOGEHLQFRUSRUDWHG
LQWR WKHLU ' JHRORJLFDO PRGHOV $V YLUWXDOO\ DOO GHSRVLWV
DUHVWUXFWXUDOO\FRQWUROOHGLWZRXOGVHHPVHQVLEOHWRREWDLQ
JXLGDQFH IURP VWUXFWXUDO GDWD EXW D PHWKRG WR DFFRPSOLVK
WKLV WDVN HDVLO\ DQG HIÀFLHQWO\ KDV HOXGHG UHVHDUFKHUV RI
VWUXFWXUDOJHRORJ\RIRUHGHSRVLWV
7KHGHFHSWLYHO\VLPSOHDSSURDFKLQWURGXFHGLQWKLVSDSHU
DGGUHVVHVWKLVLVVXH
7KHVROXWLRQLVWRXVHWKHDVVD\HGJUDGHGDWDREWDLQHGIURP
WKH GHSRVLW·V GULOO KROHV DV WKH SULPDU\ VWUXFWXUDO GDWD IRU
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ37KLVLVDQDSSURDFKWKDWSURYLGHVDUDSLG
VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO IUDPHZRUN IRU WKH JUDGH GLVWULEXWLRQV
RI PLQHUDO GHSRVLWV DQG LQ WXUQ DOORZV VHQVLEOH VWUDWHJLHV
WR EH LPSOHPHQWHG IRU JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ DQG UHVRXUFH
HVWLPDWLRQ
*UDGHLVDQXQFRQYHQWLRQDOGDWDVHWIRUVWUXFWXUDODQDO\VLV
EXWLIWKHDVVXPSWLRQLVFRUUHFWWKDWYLUWXDOO\DOOGHSRVLWVDUH
LQ VRPH ZD\ VWUXFWXUDOO\ FRQWUROOHG RU PRGLÀHG WKHQ LW LV
ORJLFDOWRH[SHFWVWUXFWXUDOIHDWXUHVWREHREVHUYDEOHIURPWKH
ÀUVWRUGHUJUDGHSDWWHUQVRIPLQHUDOGHSRVLWV7KHH[SHFWDWLRQ
WKDW JUDGH SDWWHUQV VKRXOG UHÁHFW VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJ\ LV
EHFDXVH PHWDOOLF FRQVWLWXHQWV DUH PRELOLVHG DQG HPSODFHG
E\K\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGÁRZWKURXJKKLJKO\SHUPHDEOH]RQHV
IRUPHG IURP GHIRUPDWLRQ HJ &R[ (WKHULGJH DQG :DOO
 +REEV  0DUVKDOO DQG *LOOLJDQ  &R[  
7KH JUDGH SDWWHUQV WKHUHIRUH VKRXOG PLPLF WKH VLJQLÀFDQW
VWUXFWXUHV WKDW FRQWUROOHG WKH ÁXLG ÁRZ WKXV UHYHDOLQJ WKH
VWUXFWXUDODUFKLWHFWXUHRIWKHPLQHUDOLVDWLRQ
6XUSULVLQJO\WKLVDVVXPSWLRQDOWKRXJKHQWLUHO\UHDVRQDEOH
KDV QRW EHHQ D IRFXV RI UHVHDUFK RQ RUH GHSRVLW JHQHVLV
&RZDQ    ,Q WKLV SDSHU VRPH JUDGH SDWWHUQV
DW GHSRVLW VFDOHV DUH VKRZQ DORQJ ZLWK WKHLU VWUXFWXUDO
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ 7KHVH H[DPSOHV FOHDUO\ LOOXVWUDWH WKDW
VWUXFWXUDOJHRORJ\SOD\VDFHQWUDOUROHLQWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRI
PLQHUDOLVDWLRQLQDOOW\SHVRIGHSRVLWV:LWKEHWWHUVWUXFWXUDO
XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI JUDGH SDWWHUQV JHRORJLVWV FDQ EHWWHU
SUHGLFWWKHVSDWLDOJUDGHFRQWLQXLW\DQGPLQLPLVHJHRORJLFDO
PLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ ,Q DGGLWLRQ WKH NQRZOHGJH RI VWUXFWXUDO
JHRPHWU\FDQEHXVHGWRIDVWWUDFNWKHJHRORJLFDOPRGHOOLQJ
SURFHVV $OWKRXJK LPSOLFLW JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ PHWKRGV
KDYHEHHQGHYHORSHGRYHUWKHODVW\HDUVDQGDUHIDYRXUHG
LQWKLVSDSHU /DMDXQLH&RXUULRX[DQG0DQXHO&RZDQ
et al   &KLOqV et al  &RZDQ /DQH DQG 5RVV
  WKH DQDO\WLFDO PHWKRG GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV SDSHU LV
LQGHSHQGHQWRIWKHPRGHOOLQJDSSURDFKLWFDQEHXVHGEHIRUH
ZLWKHLWKHUH[SOLFLWRULPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJPHWKRGV
DOWN-PLUNGE PROJECTION METHOD –
A ‘RECENT’ GEOLOGICAL APPLICATION OF
PERSPECTIVAL ANAMORPHOSIS
7KHWHFKQLTXHXVHGIRUWKHVWUXFWXUDODQDO\VLVRIJUDGHGDWDLV
WKHZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGGRZQSOXQJHPDSSURMHFWLRQ )LJXUH 
8VHG LQ FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ PHWKRGV WKLV
3. This paper focuses on grade data. Additional data such as logged lithological data are
used in the analysis where available; however, analytical data – especially assays – are
the only geological data available at all exploration and mine sites. These analytical data
sets are much more reliable than subjectively obtained logged data.
208 Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation
WHFKQLTXHDOORZVVWUXFWXUDOO\DFFXUDWHJHRORJLFDOERGLHVWREH
FRQVWUXFWHG )LJXUHG 
7KHUH DUH D IHZ H[DPSOHV RI GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ LQ
VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO OLWHUDWXUH %DLOH\ DQG 0DF.LQ 
&KDUOHVZRUWK /DQJHQEHUJ DQG 5DPVGHQ  .LOE\ DQG
&KDUOHVZRUWK(OOLRWW/DQJHQEHUJDQG5DPVGHQ
  %\ IDU WKH PRVW FRPPRQ XVH RI WKLV PHWKRG LV WR
GHWHUPLQH WKH WUXH SURÀOH VKDSHV RI IROGV IURP PDSSHG
JHRPHWULHV HJ6LPRQDQG*UD\5DJDQ&RZDQ
7UHDJXV7UHDJXVDQG'URRS 
7KH GHVFULSWLRQ RI GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ E\ 0DF.LQ
  LQGLFDWHG WKDW WKH PHWKRG ZDV QRW UHVWULFWHG WR WKH
YLVXDOLVDWLRQ RI F\OLQGULFDO IROGV EXW ZDV DOVR XVHG LQ WKH
DQDO\VLVRIIDXOWV VHHDOVR7KUHHW 0DF.LQQRWHGWKDW
WKHPHWKRGKDGEHHQXVHGE\(XURSHDQJHRORJLVWVIRUKDOID
FHQWXU\SULRUWRWKHSXEOLFDWLRQRIKLVSDSHUVRWKLVPHWKRG
KDV QRZ EHHQ ZHOO HVWDEOLVKHG IRU PRUH WKDQ D FHQWXU\
+H GHVFULEHG GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ DV D YHU\ SRZHUIXO
VWUXFWXUDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ PHWKRG WKDW PD\ VKRUWFXW PDQ\
\HDUVRIJHRORJLFDOPDSSLQJ
The writer was introduced to the method by E B Bailey in
 ZKHQ KH ZDV SULYLOHJHG WR ZDWFK %DLOH\ DSSO\ LW LQ
JUDVSLQJOLWHUDOO\DWDJODQFHWKHVWUXFWXUDOVLJQLÀFDQFHRI
a swirling outcrop pattern in the Pennsylvania Piedmont
that had been missed by two generations of competent
geologists by whom the area had been mapped 0DFNLQ
S 
7KHVLJQLÀFDQFHRIWKLVVWDWHPHQWLVGLIÀFXOWWRFRPSUHKHQG
GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ PD\ KDYH EHHQ XQGHUDSSUHFLDWHG
E\WKHJHRORJLFDOFRPPXQLW\+RZFRXOG0DF.LQFODLPWKDW
GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ ZDV SRZHUIXO HQRXJK WR LQVWDQWO\
VROYH JHRORJLFDO SUREOHPV WKDW ZHUH XQVROYHG E\ WZR
JHQHUDWLRQVRIJHRORJLFDOPDSSLQJ"7KLVVHHPVSUHSRVWHURXV
DVWKHGRZQSOXQJHSURMHFWLRQWHFKQLTXHLVDVLPSOHYLHZLQJ
PHWKRGRORJ\ ZKHUHDV JHRORJLFDO PDSSLQJ LQ FRPSDULVRQ
LQYROYHV D ORW RI WLPH DQG FDUHIXOO\ FRQVLGHUHG JHRORJLFDO
DQDO\VLV 7KH IROORZLQJ QRQJHRORJLFDO H[DPSOHV PD\
FRQYLQFHWKRVHZKRDUHVFHSWLFDORI0DF.LQ·VFODLP
7KH FHQWXU\ROG GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ LV LQ IDFW D
PRUH ¶UHFHQW· DSSOLFDWLRQ RI ¶SHUVSHFWLYDO DQDPRUSKRVLV·
² D SUDFWLFH RI XVLQJ REOLTXH YLHZV WR PDNH VHQVH RI
GLVWRUWHG VKDSHV DQG LPDJHV 7KLV WHFKQLTXH ZDV ÀUVW
XVHG E\ HDUO\ 5HQDLVVDQFH DUWLVWV LQ WKH ÀIWHHQWK FHQWXU\
WKH ÀUVW NQRZQ DQDPRUSKLF GUDZLQJV ZHUH E\ /HRQDUGR
GD9LQFL   6FKZDUW] 7KH$PEDVVDGRUV
D IDPRXV SRUWUDLW SDLQWHG LQ  E\ *HUPDQ DUWLVW +DQV
+ROEHLQ WKH <RXQJHU     GHSLFWV DQ DQDPRUSKLF
LPDJHRIDVNXOOWKDWFDQRQO\EHGHFLSKHUHGDWDYHU\ORZ
YLHZLQJDQJOH DSSUR[LPDWHO\ƒ IURPWKHSDLQWLQJVXUIDFH
)LJXUH   7KH VNXOO LV YLUWXDOO\ XQUHFRJQLVDEOH ZKHQ WKH
SDLQWLQJLVYLHZHGLQWKHQRUPDOIURQWRQYLHZ )LJXUHD 
7KH ORZDQJOH YLHZLQJ RI WKLV SDLQWLQJ )LJXUH E  DQG
DFFRPSDQ\LQJUHDOLVDWLRQRIWKHYLHZHUZKRUHFRJQLVHVWKDW
WKLVLVDVNXOOLVDQDORJRXVWRYLHZLQJIROGSURÀOHVWKDWDUH
SOXQJLQJORZDQJOHWRWKHHURVLRQVXUIDFHDQGWKHJHRORJLVW
FRPLQJ WR WKH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH WUXH JHRPHWU\ RI WKH
IROGV RQO\ LQ WKDW GRZQSOXQJH YLHZ ,QWHUHVWLQJO\ WKLV
VDPHWHFKQLTXHLVXVHGFXUUHQWO\LQWKHGHVLJQRIDGYHUWLVLQJ
ORJRV IRU WHOHYLVLRQ %URZQ DQG 0HULÀHOG   ZKLFK
DUH SDLQWHG RQ VSRUWLQJ ÀHOGV GLVWRUWHG EXW DSSHDU WR VLW
XSULJKW XQGLVWRUWHG ZKHQ YLHZHG ¶GRZQSOXQJH· WKURXJK
WHOHYLVLRQFDPHUDV )LJXUHD &RQWLQXLQJLQWKHIRRWVWHSV
RIWKH5HQDLVVDQFHSDLQWHUVPRGHUQDUWLVWVFRQWLQXHWRXVH
 ‘X-Ray Plunge Projection’ – Understanding Structural Geology from Grade Data | E J Cowan

FIG 1 - Down-plunge projection of a mapped lithological unit, with the down-plunge direction indicated by the red arrow in each image: (A) map view; (B) down-
plunge view to 25° to North reveals a fold profile view; (C) oblique view; (D) modelled folded unit using down-plunge projection view as reference line using an
implicit modelling software. Fold profile section is orthogonal to the fold plunge indicated by the red arrow. Map courtesy of Ragan (1985, Figure X14.2).

FIG 2 - (A) Hans Holbein the Younger’s painting The Ambassadors (located at the National Gallery, London) depicts an anamorphic image of a skull that can only be
recognised as a skull at a very low viewing angle of 2° from the surface of the painting in the direction of the red arrow; (B) an undistorted view of the skull viewed
along the arrow in (A). Both images are in the public domain (Wikipedia contributors, 2011a, 2012a).

SHUVSHFWLYDO DQDPRUSKRVLV WR FUHDWH VSHFWDFXODU ZRUNV RI $V LQ WKH FDVH RI WKHVH DQDPRUSKLF LPDJHV DQG ZRUNV RI
DUWWKDWFDQRQO\EHXQGHUVWRRGIURPDYHU\QDUURZYDQWDJH DUWGRZQSOXQJHSURMHFWLRQUHYHDOVWKHPRVWVHQVLEOHLPDJH
SRLQW DQG DUH FKDRWLF DQG LQFRPSUHKHQVLEOH LQ DQ\ RWKHU RQO\ DW D VSHFLÀF QDUURZO\ GHÀQHG YLHZ OLQH 7KH SDLQWLQJ
YLHZ )LJXUHEWRG  E\ +ROEHLQ )LJXUH   DV ZHOO DV PRGHUQ DSSOLFDWLRQ RI

Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation 209

Chapter 3 | Geological Interpretation and Geological Modelling

FIG 3 - Recent application of perspectival anamorphosis in advertising and in the arts. (A) Anamorphic projection is used for a Panasonic advertising logo at a rugby
match so that it appears upright and undistorted from the viewpoint of the television audience. At any other viewing angle, the logo appears distorted (GrassAds,
2013). (B) Felice Varini uses architecture and even entire villages as his canvases for his large-scale paintings (Varini, 2012). Varini’s art makes sense from a particular
vantage point, in this case revealing a bullseye ring pattern (left), but the paint marks make little geometrical sense from any other viewpoint (right) (from Slade,
2013). (C) Anamorphic chalk drawing on a road surface by artist Leon Keer viewed from the optimal vantage point (Wikipedia contributors 2011b); to see how this
painting appears from other angles see Keer (2012). (D) A sculpture by Shigeo Fukuda is a jumbled mess in the foreground, but the mirrored reflection provides an
alternative view where it appears as an undistorted piano (Wikipedia contributors, 2012b).

WKH PHWKRG )LJXUH   DSWO\ LOOXVWUDWHV KRZ VLJQLÀFDQW WKH WHFKQLTXHVIRUWKHSXUSRVHVRI0LQHUDO5HVRXUFHHVWLPDWLRQ

GRZQSOXQJHSURMHFWLRQPHWKRGFDQEH7KHUHIRUH0DF.LQ·V
FRQFOXVLRQ VKRXOG EH WDNHQ VHULRXVO\ LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI
HFRQRPLFGHSRVLWV DQG SODQ YLHZV EXW DOVR PDNH XVH RI LQFOLQHG VHFWLRQV WR
$QGLIWKHSXUSRVHRIWKHVWXG\RIWKHGLVWULFWLVHFRQRPLF
WKH JUDVS RI WKH SLFWXUH SURYLGHG E\ WKH GRZQVWUXFWXUH
view may mean the difference between success and failure of
the economic venture 0DF.LQS 
7KLV LV D FUXFLDO VWDWHPHQW WKDW KDV DV PXFK UHOHYDQFH
WRGD\DVLWKDGLQSDUWLFXODUO\ZKHUHWKHUHLVHYLGHQFH
WR VXJJHVW WKDW SUDFWLFDO DSSOLFDWLRQ RI WKLV FHQWXU\ROG
PHWKRG WR DQDO\VH RUH GHSRVLWV KDV QRW EHHQ URXWLQHO\
DSSOLHG E\ PRGHUQ HFRQRPLF JHRORJLVWV &RLQFLGHQWDOO\
RQHRIWKHUDUHGLVFXVVLRQVRIRUHGHSRVLWVLQWKHFRQWH[WRI
GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ ZDV ZULWWHQ E\ 0DF.LQ   ,Q
WKH FRQWH[W RI RXWOLQLQJ PRGHUQ JHRORJLFDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
4. As at May 2013, a Google image search for ‘down-plunge projection’, ‘down plunge
projection’ or ‘down-structure method’ (all in quotation marks) yielded no illustrations of
ore deposits. A search comprising ‘down-plunge projection’ with the word ‘ore’ using the
online Monash University library resulted in no journal publications on ore deposits that
have used this method for the analysis of mineralisation geometry.
0DF.HQ]LHDQG:LOVRQ  DGYLVHGJHRORJLVWVWRQRWRQO\
LQWHUSUHW JHRORJLFDO GDWD LQ WKH WUDGLWLRQDO YHUWLFDO VHFWLRQ
¶LQYHVWLJDWH WUHQGV DQG VWUXFWXUHV DW RSWLPDO RULHQWDWLRQV·
S   7KLV LV WKH FORVHVW UHFRPPHQGDWLRQ WR WKDW PDGH
E\ 0DF.LQ ZLWKRXW VSHFLÀF UHIHUHQFH WR WKH GRZQSOXQJH
SURMHFWLRQPHWKRG
:LWKWKHDGYHQWRIIDVWSHUVRQDOFRPSXWHUVWKHJUDSKLFDO
GLVSOD\ RI WKH GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ YLHZ KDV EHFRPH
HIIRUWOHVV +DQVIRUG DQG &ROOLQV   GLVFXVV WKLV LQ WKH
FRQWH[WRIDQDPRUSKLFLPDJHV3ORWWLQJRIWKHSURMHFWLRQRQ
SDSHUDVZDVWKHFDVHIRUUHVHDUFKHUVLQWKHVDQGV
LVQRORQJHUUHTXLUHG
:KLOH WKH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI WKH GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ
PHWKRG WR JUDGH GDWD WR DVVLVW WKH VWUXFWXUDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
RI PLQHUDO GHSRVLWV LV HQWLUHO\ QHZ WKH SURMHFWLRQ PXVW EH
UHODWLYH WR VRPH JHRORJLFDO IHDWXUH VHHQ LQ WKH PLQHUDOLVHG
SDWWHUQIRUWKLVPHWKRGWRZRUN7KHGLUHFWLRQLQZKLFKZH
VKRXOG EH YLHZLQJ LV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI VWUXFWXUDO
V\PPHWU\

210 Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation

 ‘X-Ray Plunge Projection’ – Understanding Structural Geology from Grade Data | E J Cowan
STRUCTURAL SYMMETRY
6\VWHPDWLF VWXGLHV RI VWUXFWXUDO IDEULF DQDO\VLV EHJDQ ZLWK
WKH ZRUN RI 6DQGHU   DQG ZDV ODWHU H[SRXQGHG E\
UHVHDUFKHUVVXFKDV.QRSIDQG,QJHUVRQ  3DWWHUVRQDQG
:HLVV  DQG7XUQHUDQG:HLVV  7KHVHHDUO\ZRUNV
ZHUH HVWDEOLVKHG RQ DSSO\LQJ V\PPHWU\ SULQFLSOHV XVHG LQ
PLQHUDORJ\ WR GHVFULEH URFN IDEULF UHODWLRQVKLSV )XUWKHU
ZRUNE\VWUXFWXUDOUHVHDUFKHUV HJ)OLQQ5DPVD\
  HVWDEOLVKHG WKDW VWUDLQ LV D PHDVXUHDEOH TXDQWLW\ WKDW
FDQEHLQIHUUHGIURPURFNIDEULF7KHVHZRUNHUVDUHDVPDOO
VDPSOHRIWKHODUJHQXPEHURIVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLVWVIURPWKH
ODVWFHQWXU\ZKRPDGHJUHDWDGYDQFHVLQWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJ
RIURFNIDEULFVWKHLULGHDVKDYHEHFRPHWKHEDVLVRIPRGHUQ
VWUXFWXUDO DQDO\VLV WHFKQLTXHV 0XFK RI WKH UHVHDUFK
ZRUN VLQFH KDV EXLOW RQ WKH NH\ REVHUYDWLRQV DQG FRQFHSWV
HVWDEOLVKHG E\ WKHVH SLRQHHUV RI PRGHUQ VWUXFWXUDO DQDO\VLV
PRUHWKDQ\HDUVDJR
7KHIDEULFRIPLQHUDOGHSRVLWVREVHUYHGLQJUDGHGLVWULEXWLRQ
DQG V\PPHWU\ UHÁHFWV WKH VWUXFWXUDO VWDWH RI WKH KRVW URFNV
LGHQWLÀHGE\WKHVHSLRQHHULQJZRUNV<HWWKLVVKRXOGQRWEH
VXUSULVLQJDVVXPLQJWKDWJUDGHGLVWULEXWLRQLVFRQWUROOHGE\
VWUXFWXUHVWKURXJKZKLFKK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVÁRZDQGWKXV
E\ LPSOLFDWLRQ WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI VWUXFWXUDO SHUPHDELOLW\
GXULQJ GHIRUPDWLRQ SOD\V D NH\ UROH LQ WKH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI
PLQHUDOLVDWLRQLQWKHGHIRUPHGKRVWURFN HJ&R[(WKHULGJH
DQG:DOO+REEV 
6RPHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVWUXFWXUDOV\PPHWU\V\VWHPVREVHUYHG
LQ UHDO GHSRVLWV DUH LOOXVWUDWHG LQ )LJXUH  WKH VWUXFWXUDO
SHUPHDELOLW\ FUHDWHG E\ WKHVH IDEULFV LV LQWHUSUHWHG WR EH
WKH PDLQ FRQWURO RI JUDGH GLVWULEXWLRQ LQ WKLV ÀJXUH 7KH
H[DPSOHV VKRZQ GR QRW UHSUHVHQW DQ H[KDXVWLYH OLVW WKHUH
ZRXOGEHOLPLWOHVVYDULDWLRQVEDVHGRQWKHVHEDVLFJHRPHWULHV
FRPELQHG ZLWK QHVWHG DUUDQJHPHQWV RI WKHVH IHDWXUHV DW
YDULRXVVFDOHV7KHUHIRUHLWZRXOGEHSRLQWOHVVWRDWWHPSWWR
GRFXPHQWLQ)LJXUHWKHYDULRXVSHUPXWDWLRQVRIVWUXFWXUDO
JHRPHWULHV WKDW FRXOG H[LVW LQ QDWXUH 7KH REMHFWLYH RI WKLV
SDSHU LV WR GHVFULEH D VLPSOH PHWKRGRORJ\ IRU JUDGH GDWD
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ WKH DELOLW\ WR UHFRJQLVH VWUXFWXUDO IHDWXUHV
XVLQJWKHGRZQSOXQJHSURMHFWLRQPHWKRGZLOOGHSHQGRQWKH
VWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDOH[SHULHQFHRIWKHJHRORJLVW
7KH PRVW VLJQLÀFDQW LVVXH DERXW WKH VWUXFWXUDO V\PPHWU\
PRGHOVLOOXVWUDWHGLQ)LJXUHLVQRWWKHLUGLIIHUHQFHVEXWWKHLU
FRPPRQDOLW\7KHVWUDLQVWDWHVYDU\IURPEULWWOHWRGXFWLOHDQG
WKHGHJUHHRIVWUDLQYDULHVEXWDOPRVWDOOV\PPHWU\V\VWHPV
LOOXVWUDWHG H[FHSW )LJXUH D ZKLFK GRHV QRW SRVVHVV DQ\
GLVFHUQLEOHOLQHDUIDEULF KDYHDFRPPRQOLQHDWLRQIHDWXUHWKDW
PD\SHUVLVWDFURVVWKHHQWLUHGHSRVLW )LJXUHVEWRK DQG
LQ WKH WULFOLQLF V\PPHWU\ V\VWHP5 PXOWLSOH ORFDOLVHG OLQHDU
RULHQWDWLRQV )LJXUHL 7KHÀUVWRUGHUOLQHDWLRQ )LJXUHVE
WRK LVDIHDWXUHHLWKHUIRUPHGIURPDQLQWHUVHFWLRQRISODQDU
IHDWXUHV RU DV WKH UHVXOW RI OLQHDU H[WHQVLRQ WKH GLIIHUHQFHV
FDQ RQO\ EH GLVWLQJXLVKHG E\ FRQGXFWLQJ ÀHOG ZRUN DQG
IURPLQGHSHQGHQWJHRORJLFDOREVHUYDWLRQV6XFKEURDGOLQHDU
SDWWHUQVRIVWUXFWXUDOFRQWLQXLW\WKDWLQÁXHQFHPLQHUDOLVDWLRQ
ZHUH GHVFULEHG E\ /DLQJ   DOWKRXJK /DLQJ XVHG
WUDGLWLRQDO VWUXFWXUDO DQDO\WLFDO PHWKRGV WR GHWHUPLQH WKLV
OLQHDU D[LV ZKHUHDV LQ WKLV SDSHU JUDGH GDWD DUH SULPDULO\
XVHGWRGHWHUPLQHWKLVRULHQWDWLRQ
5. This is defined by three vectors that are not mutually orthogonal and of unequal length.
Such symmetry results only in localised lineation orientations.
7KH TXLFNHVW ZD\ WR GHWHUPLQH VWUXFWXUDO V\PPHWU\ LV WR
H[DPLQH JUDGH GLVWULEXWLRQ DW WKH GHSRVLWVFDOH )LJXUHV E
WR K  RU LGHQWLI\ ORFDO JUDGH FRQWLQXLWLHV IRU GHSRVLWV ZLWK
VWURQJO\ WULFOLQLF V\PPHWULHV )LJXUH L  7KH PHWKRG
GLVFXVVHGLQWKHQH[WVHFWLRQXVHVDNH\IHDWXUHWKDWLVSUHVHQW
LQPDQ\PLQHUDOGHSRVLWV²ÀUVWRUGHUJUDGHOLQHDWLRQ
MAXIMUM INTENSITY PROJECTION
7KHIDEULFRIJUDGHGDWDFDQEHGHWHUPLQHGVLPSO\E\YLHZLQJ
WKH UDZ JUDGH GDWD RIWHQ DW WKH HQWLUH GHSRVLWVFDOH DQG
DVVLVWHGZLWKDFRPSXWHUUHQGHULQJPHWKRGFDOOHGPD[LPXP
LQWHQVLW\SURMHFWLRQRU0,3 VHH:LNLSHGLD&RQWULEXWRUV
ZKLFKKDVDXVHIXOURWDWLQJ0,3LPDJH 0,3ZDVRULJLQDOO\
FDOOHG¶PD[LPXPDFWLYLW\SURMHFWLRQ·E\LWVLQYHQWRUV:DOOLV
et al  
0,3LVDTXLFNDQGYHU\VLPSOHFRPSXWHUUHQGHULQJPHWKRG
RULJLQDOO\XVHGLQPHGLFLQHWRDQDO\VH'YR[HOGDWDVHWVRI
FRPSXWHG WRPRJUDSK\ &7  GDWD ,W ZDV XVHG ORQJ EHIRUH
WKH DYDLODELOLW\ RI FRPSXWHUV FDSDEOH RI DSSO\LQJ UHODWLYHO\
PRUH JUDSKLFLQWHQVLYH ' UHQGHULQJ PHWKRGV HJ )LVKPDQ
et al 0,3ZRUNVE\SURMHFWLQJ'YR[HOYDOXHVDORQJ
D UD\ RUWKRJRQDO WR WKH PRQLWRU SODQH ZKHUH WKH SRLQWV
ZLWK WKH KLJKHVW YDOXH DORQJ WKH OLQH WDNLQJ SUHFHGHQFH IRU
GLVSOD\ RYHU ORZHU YDOXHV WKDW OLH DORQJ WKH VDPH UD\ 7KH
KLJKHVWYDOXHDORQJWKHUD\LVWKHQGLVSOD\HGRQWKHPRQLWRU
DV D ' LPDJH (IIHFWLYHO\ WKLV GLVSOD\ PHWKRG LV D VLPSOH
' SURMHFWLRQ WHFKQLTXH MXVW OLNH VKLQLQJ D OLJKW RQWR D '
REMHFW WR FDVW D ' VKDGRZ RQ WKH ZDOO $V DQ DGGLWLRQDO
IHDWXUH0,3LQFRUSRUDWHVWKHVFDODUYDOXHVDVVLJQHGWRHDFK
SRLQWZLWKWKHSURMHFWLRQVRWKDWLWZRUNVOLNHDQ;UD\LPDJH
ZKHUHWKHKLJKHVWJUDGHSRLQWVDUHPRUHSURPLQHQWWKDQWKH
VXUURXQGLQJ ORZHU JUDGH YDOXHV WKXV VSDWLDO FKDQJHV LQ
JUDGHYDOXHVFDQEHGHWHFWHGLQWKHSURMHFWHGYLHZ$OWKRXJK
0,3 ZDV RULJLQDOO\ XVHG LQ WKH DQDO\VLV RI IXOO ' &7 GDWD
WKHDXWKRUKDVDSSOLHGWKLVPHWKRGRQKXQGUHGVRIPLQHUDO
GHSRVLWVRIDOOW\SHVDQGKDVVKRZQWKDWWKLVWHFKQLTXHLVYHU\
HIIHFWLYHIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRIERWKVSDUVHDQGGHQVHGULOOKROH
GDWD )LJXUH 
,QVWHDGRIZRUNLQJZLWKGULOOKROHLQWHUYDOGDWDWKHDXWKRU
KDV IRXQG WKDW GHVXUYH\HG PLGSRLQW GDWD H[SUHVVHG DV
[\]JUDGH  LV EHVW VXLWHG IRU WKH HIIHFWLYH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI
GDWD )LJXUH 9LVXDOLVLQJDYROXPHGDWDVHWFDQEHDFKLHYHG
E\ VLPSO\ LQFUHDVLQJ WKH SRLQW VL]H RI WKH DVVD\ SRLQWV VR
WKDW JDSV EHWZHHQ WKH SRLQWV DUH ÀOOHG LQ WKXV SURGXFLQJ
VLPXODWHG'YROXPHGDWD7KLVDOORZVDQDOPRVW'YROXPH
0,3DQDO\VLVRIGULOOKROHGDWDWREHFRQGXFWHGMXVWE\XVLQJ
WKH¶]LQGH[·RUGHULQJFDSDELOLW\LQ2SHQ*UDSKLFV/LEUDU\RU
2SHQ*/67KH¶]·LQ]LQGH[UHIHUVWRWKHFRPSXWHUPRQLWRU
FRRUGLQDWHD[LVRUWKRJRQDOWRWKHFRPSXWHUVFUHHQLQZKLFK
REMHFWV WKDW DUH ORFDWHG IDU IURP WKH YLHZHU DUH ¶PDSSHG·
EHKLQG REMHFWV WKDW DUH FORVH WR WKH YLHZHU 7KH GHIDXOW
' UHQGHULQJ RI JUDGH SRLQW GDWD XVLQJ WKH ] LQGH[ ZRXOG
UHQGHUWKHFORVHVWSRLQWV ORZYDOXHVRI] LQIURQWRISRLQWV
WKDWDUHIXUWKHUDZD\ KLJKYDOXHVRI] ,QPRVWPLQHUDOLVHG
V\VWHPV WKH KLJK JUDGHV DUH VXUURXQGHG E\ ORZ JUDGHV VR
WKHGHIDXOWLVWRUHQGHUWKHORZHUJUDGHVLQIURQWRIWKHKLJK
JUDGHVWKXVPDVNLQJWKHKLJKJUDGHFRUH+RZHYHULIWKH]
LQGH[ LV RUGHUHG DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH JUDGH YDOXHV UDWKHU WKDQ
WKHGLVWDQFHDZD\IURPWKHREVHUYHUWKHKLJKHVWJUDGHSRLQWV
DUH DOZD\V UHQGHUHG LQ IURQW RI ORZHU JUDGH SRLQWV WKXV
6. OpenGL is a cross-language, multi-platform application programming interface for
rendering 2D and 3D computer graphics.
Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation 211
Chapter 3 | Geological Interpretation and Geological Modelling

FIG 4 - A selection of fabric symmetries of geological structures: (A) bedding fabric representing axial symmetry, but linear axis is absent; (B) pure linear fabric with
axial symmetry; (C) sheath fold with extreme stretch representing orthorhombic symmetry; (D) conjugate fault system with orthorhombic symmetry; (E) upright fold
with orthorhombic symmetry; (F) faulted bedded fabric with monoclinic symmetry; (G) C-S fabric with monoclinic symmetry; (H) overturned folding with monoclinic
symmetry; (I) multi-phase folding with triclinic symmetry. All examples except (A) and (I) display a first-order linear fabric of either elongation or intersection
lineation that can be used for down-plunge projection. In (A) linear fabric is absent and in triclinic fabric (I) there may be local linear axes as indicated by the arrows.

FIG 5 - Schematic cross-sectional view of a computer monitor showing how
maximum intensity projection (MIP) works with grade point data. The highest
grade point values from the cloud of grade data are projected to the front of the
computer monitor along a path orthogonal to the monitor (ie parallel to the
z-axis of the monitor coordinates).
FUHDWLQJDQ;UD\HIIHFWWKDWOHWVWKHJHRORJLVWYLHZWKURXJK
WKH ORZ JUDGHV WR WKH KLJKJUDGH FRUH RI WKH PLQHUDOLVDWLRQ
)LJXUH 7KH'SRVLWLRQVRIKLJKJUDGHSRLQWVUHODWLYHWR
WKHORZHUJUDGHHQYHORSHFDQEHTXLFNO\DVVHVVHGE\URWDWLQJ
WKH0,3UHQGHUHGJUDGHGDWDVHWRQDFRPSXWHUPRQLWRU7KH
PDMRUDGYDQWDJHRI0,3LVWKDWLWUHTXLUHVYHU\OLWWOHFRPSXWHU
JUDSKLFDOSURFHVVLQJSRZHUWKHUHIRUHLWLVHDV\WRSURJUDP
WKLV GLVSOD\ PHWKRG LQWR DQ\ PLQLQJ VRIWZDUH SURGXFW
FXUUHQWO\DYDLODEOH
&RPELQLQJWKH0,3PHWKRGRIGDWDGLVSOD\ZLWKSK\VLFDO
URWDWLRQ RI WKH GDWD LQWR GRZQSOXQJH YLHZ cf 0DF.LQ
  DOORZV WKH JHRORJLVW WR TXLFNO\ GHWHUPLQH WKH OLQHDU
JUDGH DOLJQPHQW LQ VSDUVH DVVD\V VDPSOHG ZLWK GULOO KROHV
7KH LQIRUPDO WHUP LQWURGXFHG LQ WKLV SDSHU WR GHVFULEH WKLV
DQDO\WLFDO PHWKRG LV ¶;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ· 8VLQJ ;UD\
SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ D JHRORJLVW ZLWK VWUXFWXUDO DQDO\WLFDO
H[SHULHQFH FDQ UDSLGO\ LGHQWLI\ WKH VWUXFWXUDO JHRPHWULHV RI
PLQHUDOGHSRVLWVRIWHQZLWKLQPLQXWHVRIYLHZLQJWKHGDWD
6XFK UDSLG DQG DFFXUDWH JHRORJLFDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV DUH QRW
SRVVLEOH ZLWK UHODWLYHO\ PRUH FRPSOH[ DQG H[SHQVLYH '
PRGHOOLQJ PHWKRGV LQFOXGLQJ ERWK H[SOLFLW DQG LPSOLFLW
PRGHOOLQJ PHWKRGV cf &RZDQ et al   +RZHYHU ZKHQ
FRPELQHG ZLWK LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ WKH XVH RI ;UD\ SOXQJH
SURMHFWLRQ FDQ UHVXOW LQ YHU\ DFFXUDWH JHRORJLFDO PRGHOV IRU
UHVRXUFHHYDOXDWLRQSXUSRVHV
7. As at May 2013, maximum intensity projection is only available commercially in
Leapfrog® software, where this switch is called ‘enhance high values’.

212 Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation

 ‘X-Ray Plunge Projection’ – Understanding Structural Geology from Grade Data | E J Cowan

Geostatistical rationale for the use of MIP-assisted

X-ray plunge projection
,Q UHVRXUFH HYDOXDWLRQ PLQHUDO GHSRVLWV DUH VXEGLYLGHG
LQWR YROXPHV LQ ZKLFK HDFK YROXPH LV FKDUDFWHULVHG
E\ DSSUR[LPDWHO\ KRPRJHQHRXV JUDGH YDULDQFH DQG
JHRPHWULFDO FRQWLQXLW\ 7KLV YROXPHWULFDOO\ FRQVWDQW VWDWH
LV UHIHUUHG WR DV VWDWLRQDU\ EHKDYLRXU RI JUDGH GDWD ,VDDNV
DQG6ULYDVWDYD$UPVWURQJ 7KHJUDGHFRQWLQXLW\
ZLWKLQWKHVHYROXPHGRPDLQVFDQWKHQEHVXPPDULVHGZLWK
DQH[SHULPHQWDOYDULRJUDPZKLFKLQWXUQFDQEHJHQHUDOLVHG
DV D YDULRJUDP PRGHO WKDW TXDQWLÀHV WKH VSDWLDO FRUUHODWLRQ
IRUJUDGHLQWHUSRODWLRQ
,Q FRQVWUXFWLQJ DQ H[SHULPHQWDO YDULRJUDP D OLQH LV WDNHQ
WKURXJKWKHGDWDDQGWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWZRVDPSOHVDWD
VSHFLÀHGGLVWDQFHDORQJWKLVOLQHLVFDOFXODWHG$WKLUGVDPSOH
DORQJ WKLV OLQH DW WZR WLPHV WKH GLVWDQFH LV VHOHFWHG DQG WKH
GLIIHUHQFH WR WKH ÀUVW LV FDOFXODWHG DQG SORWWHG RQ D JUDSK
RI GLVWDQFH YHUVHV GLIIHUHQFH WKLV LV UHSHDWHG D VSHFLÀHG
QXPEHURIWLPHVWRFRPSOHWHWKHYDULRJUDP7KLVSURFHVVRI
GHÀQLQJ D YDULRJUDP PRGHO IRU HDFK GRPDLQ DVVXPHV WKDW
WKHJUDGHEHKDYHVDSSUR[LPDWHO\LQDUHFWLOLQHDUIDVKLRQ7KH
FRQGLWLRQRIUHFWLOLQHDUJUDGHFRQWLQXLW\ZLWKLQDGRPDLQLV
DQDSSUR[LPDWLRQRIWUXHQDWXUDOJUDGHFRQWLQXLW\EXWVXFK
DQ DSSUR[LPDWLRQ KDV SURYHQ SUDFWLFDO DSSOLFDWLRQ LQ WKH
HVWLPDWLRQ RI JUDGH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI PLQHUDO GHSRVLWV 7KH
ODUJHO\ UHFWLOLQHDU QDWXUH RI JUDGH FRQWLQXLW\ LV WKH UHDVRQ
ZK\ ;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ ZRUNV LQ SUDFWLFH WKHUHIRUH FIG 6 - A synthetic grade data set with red representing ore and blue indicating
;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ DQG YDULRJUDSK\ VKRXOG LQWHUDFW waste. (A) Low grades surround the high grade so the geometry of the ore
YHU\ZHOOIRUWKHGDWDDQDO\VLVSULRUWRUHVRXUFHHVWLPDWLRQRI cannot be deciphered easily; (B) maximum intensity projection on an arbitrary
PLQHUDOGHSRVLWV viewing direction yields nothing that is geologically sensible; (C) only the
down-plunge orientation reveals a fold profile; (D) original fold-shaped mesh
An application of X-ray plunge projection object used to create the data; (E) ore boundary is modelled using implicit
modelling software without the need for digitisation.
7KHV\QWKHWLFGDWDLOOXVWUDWHGLQ)LJXUHZDVJHQHUDWHGDQG
XVHG E\ WKH DXWKRU DV D WHDFKLQJ DLG IRU ' PRGHOOLQJ DQG DQG LV DOVR WKH PRVW FRQWLQXRXV GLUHFWLRQ RI WKH ¶RUH· ERG\
WKHDSSOLFDWLRQRI;UD\SOXQJHSURMHFWLRQ7KHGDWDVHWRID 7KLVRULHQWDWLRQLVWKH;UD\SOXQJHSURMHFWLRQOLQH
IROGVKDSHG¶RUHGHSRVLW·ZDVGHYHORSHGE\ÀUVWFRQVWUXFWLQJ
7KLV H[HUFLVH LOOXVWUDWHG LQ )LJXUH   KDV EHHQ UHSHDWHG
D ZLUHIUDPH REMHFW WKDW UHSUHVHQWV D F\OLQGULFDO IROG REMHFW
E\ KXQGUHGV RI JHRORJLVWV ZLWK D ZLGH UDQJH RI H[SHULHQFH
ZLWKDÀQLWHWKLFNQHVV )LJXUHG DQGWKHSK\VLFDOZLUHIUDPH
VLQFHGXULQJJHRORJLFDOPRGHOOLQJWUDLQLQJVHVVLRQVE\
REMHFWZDVLQVHUWHGLQWRVRPHGULOOKROHV3RLQWVWKDWIHOOLQWR
WKHDXWKRUDQGHYHU\WLPHWKHGRZQSOXQJHRULHQWDWLRQZDV
WKHREMHFWZHUHDWWULEXWHGDV RUH DQGDOOH[WHUQDOSRLQWV
UHSOLFDWHGE\DOOJHRORJLVWVWRZLWKLQDFRQHRIDSSUR[LPDWHO\
ZHUHDWWULEXWHGDV ZDVWH HIIHFWLYHO\DQLQGLFDWRUVHWRI
GDWDWKDWPD\UHSUHVHQWWZROLWKRORJLHV RUHDQGZDVWH FDQ ƒ 7KH YLVXDOO\ HVWLPDWHG SULQFLSDO GLUHFWLRQV RI WKH JUDGH
EHSUHSDUHGIURPDQ\GULOOKROHGDWDVHW7KHREMHFWLYHRIWKLV GLVWULEXWLRQDUHWKHQXVHGWRJXLGHLPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJZKLFK
H[HUFLVHLVWRPRGHOWKHERXQGDU\EHWZHHQWKHRUHDQGZDVWH FDQEHDFFRPSOLVKHGUDSLGO\DQGDFFXUDWHO\VLPLODUPRGHOV
]RQHV LHLVRVXUIDFH  DVTXLFNO\DVSRVVLEOH7KHJHRORJLVWV FDQ EH JHQHUDWHG E\ PDQ\ JHRORJLVWV ZLWKRXW UHVRUWLQJ
ZHUH QRW WROG WKDW WKLV ZDV D IROG JHRPHWU\ MXVW DV WKH\ WR WLPHFRQVXPLQJ DQG LQDFFXUDWH VHFWLRQDO GLJLWLVDWLRQ
ZRXOGQRWNQRZZKDWJHRPHWU\WKH\ZHUHPRGHOOLQJLIWKH\ )LJXUH H  )RU WKLV H[HUFLVH D W\SLFDO LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ
ZHUHXVLQJUHDOGULOOKROHGDWD7KHÀUVWWDVNLQWKHH[HUFLVHLV SURFHVV DVVLVWHG E\ ;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ WDNHV PLQXWHV
WRGHWHUPLQHWKHJHRPHWU\RIWKHRUHERG\ )XUWKHUPRUH EHFDXVH WKH D[LV RI WKH IROG LV LGHQWLÀHG DQG
EHFDXVHWKLVRULHQWDWLRQFDQEHUHSOLFDWHGDFFXUDWHO\E\PDQ\
7KH ¶RUH· LQWHUYDOV DUH KLGGHQ EHKLQG WKH ¶ZDVWH· GDWD
JHRORJLVWV WKH UHVXOWLQJ PRGHOV RI WKH IROG DUH YLUWXDOO\
)LJXUH D  EXW WKH KLJKJUDGH YDOXHV SURMHFW WR WKH
LGHQWLFDO WR HDFK RWKHU 7KXV WKH VSHHG RI PRGHOOLQJ DQG
IRUHJURXQG ZKHQ 0,3 LV VZLWFKHG RQ )LJXUH E  $W DQ
WKH UHSURGXFLELOLW\ RI WKH JHRORJLFDO PRGHO E\ PXOWLSOH
DUELWUDU\ RULHQWDWLRQ WKH 0,3 UHQGHULQJ RQ WKH PRQLWRU
JHRORJLVWVLVLPSURYHG$KDQGGLJLWLVHGPRGHOWKDWKDVEHHQ
PDNHVOLWWOHJHRORJLFDOVHQVH )LJXUHE EXWDORQJDFHUWDLQ
RULHQWDWLRQ D IROG SURÀOH YLHZ LV UHYHDOHG )LJXUH F  7KLV PHWLFXORXVO\FRQVWUXFWHGIURPRQHVHFWLRQWRDQRWKHUXVLQJ
RULHQWDWLRQ FDQ EH IRXQG E\ WXUQLQJ RQ WKH 0,3 DQG WKHQ WUDGLWLRQDOH[SOLFLWPHWKRGVFDQQRWUHSOLFDWHWKHDFFXUDF\RI
URWDWLQJ WKLV GDWD LQ VSDFH XQWLO D GLVWLQFWLYH IROG SURÀOH WKHPRGHOLOOXVWUDWHGLQ)LJXUHH
SDWWHUQ HPHUJHV LQ WKH PRQLWRU $OWKRXJK WKH 0,3 YLHZ LV &RQYHUVHO\ WKH EOLQG XVH RI LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ PHWKRGV
' WKH SULPDU\ ' SRLQW GDWD VHW FDQ EH URWDWHG DQG WKH ZLWKRXWVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDOFRQWH[WLVQRWHQFRXUDJHGWKLV
;UD\YLHZZLOOEHSURJUHVVLYHO\GLVSOD\HGDWDOORULHQWDWLRQV DSSURDFKZLOORQO\\LHOGWKHLQFRUUHFWDQVZHUPRUHTXLFNO\
7KHUHLVRQO\DYHU\QDUURZRULHQWDWLRQUDQJHZKHUHWKHIROG WKDQWUDGLWLRQDOVHFWLRQDOGLJLWLVDWLRQ6HQVLEOHUHVXOWVFDQQRW
SDWWHUQHPHUJHVXVLQJ0,3WKLVLVWKHIROGSOXQJHGLUHFWLRQ EH H[SHFWHG IURP XVLQJ LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ DV D JHRORJLFDO

Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation 213

Chapter 3 | Geological Interpretation and Geological Modelling

PRGHOOLQJWRROLILPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJLVOHIWWRGHIDXOWLVRWURSLF STRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF REAL DEPOSITS

SURFHVVLQJ SDUDPHWHUV $ EOLQG ¶EODFNER[· DSSURDFK WR
LVRWURSLF LPSOLFLW GDWD PRGHOOLQJ LV VHYHUHO\ OLPLWHG DV LW
ZLOOQRWQHFHVVDULO\UHYHDOVWUXFWXUDOJHRPHWU\HYHQIURPD
SHUIHFWO\PDQXIDFWXUHGGDWDVHW HJ)LJXUH ,QWKLVUHVSHFW
WUDGLWLRQDO PHWKRGV RI VHFWLRQDO GLJLWLVDWLRQ FRQGXFWHG LQ
VHFWLRQV RUWKRJRQDO WR WKH SULQFLSDO D[HV RI WKH REMHFW ZLOO
\LHOGEHWWHUUHVXOWVLIXVHGLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWK;UD\SOXQJH
SURMHFWLRQ WKDQ D EOLQG LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ DSSURDFK WKDW
LJQRUHVVWUXFWXUDOJHRPHWU\
7KH NH\ WR XVLQJ ;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ RQ UHDO GDWD
LV XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO SDWWHUQV RI WKH
JUDGH GDWD DV UHYHDOHG E\ 0,3 LW LV ZURQJ WR DVVXPH WKDW
LPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJDORQHZLOOKHOSWKHJHRORJLVWXQGHUVWDQG
WKHJHRORJ\DQ\EHWWHU %DUQHVDQG*RVVDJH $VRXQG
DSSURDFKLVIRUWKHJHRORJLVWWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHJHRORJ\XVLQJ
0,3beforeEHJLQQLQJWKHPRGHOOLQJSURFHVV
Grade control data
&ORVHO\VSDFHG JUDGH FRQWURO GDWD DUH LGHDO IRU SUDFWLVLQJ
;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ *UDGH FRQWURO GDWD LQ )LJXUH  DUH
IURP D JROG GHSRVLW WKDW LV KRVWHG ZLWKLQ D IROG KLQJH 7KH
WUDGLWLRQDOYHUWLFDOVHFWLRQDQGORQJLWXGLQDOYLHZV )LJXUHD
DQG E UHVSHFWLYHO\  HYHQ ZLWK 0,3 GR QRW UHYHDO FOHDU
VWUXFWXUDO FRQWUROV RI WKH PLQHUDOLVDWLRQ 7KLV LV GHVSLWH WKH
IDFWWKDWWKHSOXQJHRIWKLVGHSRVLWLVORZDWDURXQGƒVRWKH
YHUWLFDOVHFWLRQ )LJXUHD LVYHU\FORVHWREHLQJRUWKRJRQDOWR
WKHSOXQJHRIWKHIROGD[LV
%\ORDGLQJWKHJUDGHFRQWUROGDWDLQWRWKHYLHZHUDQGXVLQJ
0,3WKHIROGD[LDOWUHQGFDQEHTXLFNO\HVWDEOLVKHGWKHIROG
SURÀOH YLHZ LV VKRZQ LQ )LJXUH F 7KH SOXQJHRUWKRJRQDO
YLHZ RU WKH SURÀOH SODQH RI WKH IROG UHYHDOV WKH VWUXFWXUDO
FRQWUROV RI WKLV GHSRVLW ZLWKLQ WKH IROG KLQJH )LJXUH G 

FIG 7 - Grade control data from a plunging anticlinal fold hinge with an average plunge of 28°. All images of grade interval mid-points are shown with maximum
intensity projection rendering: (A) traditional vertical section view reveals some intersecting patterns of grade continuity, but patterns are not clear; (B) the
longitudinal section reveals the plunge of grade continuity indicated by the arrow; (C) viewing down-plunge, parallel to the arrow shown in (B); (D) interpreted
bedding (solid black lines) and fault (dashed grey lines). The grade lineation (seen in B) is the result of intersecting bedding and faults developed in the fold hinge,
but this structural relationship can only be seen in the very narrow view-line parallel to the plunge of the fold (C, D).

214 Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation

 ‘X-Ray Plunge Projection’ – Understanding Structural Geology from Grade Data | E J Cowan

*UDGHGLVWULEXWLRQRUWKRJRQDOWRWKHJUDGHOLQHDWLRQLVFOHDUO\ Exploration data

SDUWLWLRQHG DQG FRQWUROOHG E\ EHGGLQJ DQLVRWURS\ WKH D[LDO
SODQDU IDXOWLQJ DQG VWUXFWXUDO SHUPHDELOLW\ SURGXFHG E\
RWKHUQRQD[LDOSODQDUIDXOWVWKDWFRQWDLQWKHIROGD[LVVXFK
DV IDXOWV WKDW SURSDJDWH IURP IROG OLPEV DQG FURVVFXW WKH
D[LDOSODQH
$OORIWKHLQWHUVHFWLQJVWUXFWXUDOIDEULFVVKRZQFDQUHVXOWLQ
DFRPSOH[SDWWHUQHVSHFLDOO\ZKHQYLHZHGLQSODQKRZHYHU
ZKHQYLHZHGLQWKHWUXHIROGSURÀOHSODQHWKHSDWWHUQVPDNH
VHQVH JHRORJLFDOO\ )LJXUH F G  7KH LQWHUVHFWLQJ SODQDU
DQLVRWURSLHV IRUP D VWUXFWXUDO SHUPHDELOLW\ ]RQH WKDW LV
HIIHFWLYHO\ OLQHDU LQ FRQWLQXLW\ )LJXUH E  DQG UHÁHFWV WKH
JUDGHGLVWULEXWLRQLQWKHIROGKLQJH$OWKRXJKWKLVSDWWHUQFDQ
EH XQGHUVWRRG ZLWK UHODWLYH HDVH ZKHQ GHQVH JUDGH FRQWURO
GDWD LV DQDO\VHG E\ ;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ WKH JHRORJLVW·V
VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO VNLOOV DUH HVVHQWLDO WR LQWHUSUHW VSDUVH
H[SORUDWLRQGDWD
(OHYHQ UHDO GHSRVLWV RI YDULRXV FRPPRGLWLHV DUH VKRZQ LQ
)LJXUH  $OO VHFWLRQV DUH RUWKRJRQDO WR WKH ORQJHVW D[LV RI
WKH PLQHUDOLVDWLRQ FRQWLQXLW\ LGHQWLÀHG E\ ;UD\ SOXQJH
SURMHFWLRQ DQG DOO DUH YLHZV RI WKH HQWLUH GHSRVLW :LWK
WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI )LJXUHV H DQG J ZKLFK DUH PL[WXUHV RI
H[SORUDWLRQDQGJUDGHFRQWUROGDWDDOORWKHUGDWDUHSUHVHQW
H[SORUDWLRQGULOOLQJ7KHIROORZLQJVWUXFWXUDOFRQWUROVFDQEH
VHHQLQWKHJUDGHGDWD)LJXUHVDDQGEDUHRUWKRUKRPELF
IDXOWFRQWUROOHG PLQHUDOLVDWLRQ ZLWK WKH KLJKHVW JUDGHV
RFFXUULQJ DORQJ WKH IDXOW LQWHUVHFWLRQV UHIHU WR )LJXUH G 
)LJXUHFLVEHGGLQJFURVVFXWE\QRUPDOIDXOWVZLWKDOLQHDU
JUDGH FRQWLQXLW\ DW WKH EHGGLQJ DQG IDXOW LQWHUVHFWLRQV
)LJXUH I  )LJXUHV G WR L DUH RUWKRUKRPELF DV ZHOO DV
PRQRFOLQLF IROG V\VWHPV ZLWK ODUJHO\ IROGD[LV SDUDOOHO
PLQHUDOLVDWLRQ )LJXUHV H DQG K  )LJXUH M UHSUHVHQWV D
PRQRFOLQLF &6 IDEULF cf %HUWKp &KRXNURXQH DQG -HJRX]R
 DWWKHGHSRVLWVFDOHZLWKWKHJUDGHFRQWLQXLW\SDUDOOHO
WRIROLDWLRQ 6 DQGWKH&6LQWHUVHFWLRQ )LJXUHJ )LJXUHN

FIG 8 - Structural interpretations of the plunge-orthogonal maximum intensity projection grade renderings of a wide range of commodities. Dark grey lines are
faults; white lines are traces of bedding or foliation; dashed black lines are traces of axial planes. Scale bars are all 100 m and views are at or near entire deposit scale.

Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation 215

Chapter 3 | Geological Interpretation and Geological Modelling
VKRZVVKHDWKIROGVZLWKWKHJUDGHFRQWLQXLW\SDUDOOHOWRWKH
H[WUHPHH[WHQVLRQOLQHDWLRQ )LJXUHF 
7KHH[DPSOHVLQ)LJXUHLOOXVWUDWHWKHSRZHURIXVLQJWKH
;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ PHWKRG WR LGHQWLI\ WKH ÀUVWRUGHU
VWUXFWXUDO GHWDLOV 7KH\ DOVR KLJKOLJKW WKDW WKH VWUXFWXUDO
FRQWUROV FDQ EH HVWDEOLVKHG HDUO\ IRU YLUWXDOO\ DQ\ GHSRVLW
XVLQJ JUDGH GDWD DORQH ZLWKRXW WKH QHHG IRU LQWHUSRODWLRQ
RI JUDGH XVLQJ LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ VRIWZDUH RU H[WHQVLYH
VHFWLRQDOGLJLWLVDWLRQ
Testing deposit-scale hypotheses with field work
,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRJURXQGWUXWKDQGWHVWWKHYDULRXVK\SRWKHVHV
JHQHUDWHGIURPWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI;UD\SOXQJHSURMHFWLRQ
YLHZV)LUVWWKHVWUXFWXUDOFRQWUROVDUHDFFXUDWHO\HVWLPDWHG
IURP WKH ÀUVWRUGHU VFDOH XVLQJ JUDGH GLVWULEXWLRQ DV WKH
SULPDU\ VRXUFH RI VWUXFWXUDO LQIRUPDWLRQ 2QFH VWUXFWXUDO
K\SRWKHVHVDUHHVWDEOLVKHGWRH[SODLQWKHJUDGHGLVWULEXWLRQ
WKH FROOHFWLRQ RI WUDGLWLRQDO VWUXFWXUDO GDWD IROORZV LQ WKH
ÀHOG)LHOGLQYHVWLJDWLRQLVIRFXVHGRQDUHDVLQWKHPRGHOWKDW
DUH OLNHO\ WR SURYLGH NH\ LQIRUPDWLRQ WR WHVW WKH DOWHUQDWLYH
PRGHOVUDWKHUWKDQWKHWUDGLWLRQDOH[KDXVWLYHFROOHFWLRQDQG
DQDO\VLVRIVWUXFWXUDOGDWD7KLVLVUHIHUUHGWRDVDQRXWVLGH
LQDSSURDFKWRVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDODQDO\VLV DVRSSRVHGWR
WUDGLWLRQDOLQVLGHRXW EHFDXVHWKHH[WUDSRODWLRQRIVWUXFWXUDO
DQDO\VLVLVIURPWKHÀUVWRUGHUGHSRVLWVFDOHWRWKHÀHOGVFDOH
RU EHQFKVFDOH RU VWRSHVFDOH  UDWKHU WKDQ WKH RWKHU ZD\
DURXQG7KHUHDUHVHYHUDODGYDQWDJHVRIXVLQJWKLVRXWVLGH
LQ PHWKRG RI VWUXFWXUDO DQDO\VLV RI GULOO KROH DVVD\ GDWD
LQFOXGLQJ EHLQJUHSODFHGE\LPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJDQGLWLVRQO\DPDWWHU
• WKHPXFKVKRUWHUWLPHIUDPHWRSURGXFHWKHPRGHO
• WKH FORVH FRUUHVSRQGHQFH ZLWK WKH DLPV RI UHVRXUFH
HYDOXDWLRQ WKDW LV WKH UHVRXUFH JHRORJLVW LV LQWHUHVWHG
SULPDULO\ LQ WKH JHRPHWU\ DQG VKDSH RI WKH JUDGH
HQYHORSHDQGWKHH[SHFWHGLQWHUQDOGLVWULEXWLRQRIJUDGH
DQG FRQWUROV ² ERWK DVSHFWV FDQ EH DGGUHVVHG ZLWK WKLV
FRPELQHG ;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ DQG ÀHOG DQDO\VLV
DSSURDFK
• WKH PXOWLK\SRWKHVLV DSSURDFK WKDW LV WHVWDEOH DV
VWUXFWXUDO SUHGLFWLRQ LV PDGH XVLQJ RQH YDULDEOH JUDGH
GLVWULEXWLRQ  DQG SUHGLFWV SDWWHUQV LQ DQRWKHU LQGHSHQ
GHQWVHWRIYDULDEOHVDWDGLIIHUHQWVFDOH VWUXFWXUDOSDWWHUQV
LQWKHÀHOG 
DISCUSSION
Structural geology as the framework for
interpretation
*HRORJLVWV JHQHUDOO\ DFFHSW WKDW WHFWRQLF SURFHVVHV ² LQ RQH
IRUPRUDQRWKHU²DUHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHIRUPDWLRQRIQHDUO\
DOO PLQHUDO GHSRVLWV RQ (DUWK ,I DOPRVW DOO GHSRVLWV DUH
VWUXFWXUDOO\FRQWUROOHGRUPRGLÀHGLQVRPHZD\LWLVORJLFDO
WRH[SHFWWKDWVWUXFWXUDOIHDWXUHVVKRXOGEHREVHUYDEOHIURP
WKHJUDGHGLVWULEXWLRQSDWWHUQVRIPLQHUDOGHSRVLWV
+RZHYHU KLVWRU\ VKRZV WKDW IXQGDPHQWDO VWUXFWXUDO
JHRORJLFDO FRQFHSWV DQG DQDO\WLFDO WHFKQLTXHV GHYHORSHG
RYHU WKH ODVW FHQWXU\ KDYH QRW SOD\HG D FHQWUDO UROH LQ
WKH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH JHRPHWU\ DQG IDEULF RI PLQHUDO
GHSRVLWV$OWKRXJKWKHHFRQRPLFJHRORJ\OLWHUDWXUHLVUHSOHWH
ZLWKRUHJHQHVLVPRGHOVWKHUHLVOLWWOHSXEOLVKHGHYLGHQFHWR
VXJJHVW WKDW WKH PDMRULW\ RI WKHVH WKHRUHWLFDO PRGHOV KDYH
FRQVLGHUHG SULPDU\ GHSRVLW JHRPHWU\ DQG VWUXFWXUDO IDEULF
216 Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation
LQIRUPDWLRQ LQ WKH IRUPXODWLRQ RI WKRVH PRGHOV &RZDQ
   7KLV FDQ EH MXGJHG IURP VNLPPLQJ WKURXJK
PRVW HFRQRPLF JHRORJ\ MRXUQDO DUWLFOHV ,Q IDFW RQH RI WKH
PRVWHYLGHQWH[DPSOHVSRUWUD\LQJDODFNRIJHRPHWULFGHWDLO
RI RUH GHSRVLWV LV WKH 6RFLHW\ RI (FRQRPLF *HRORJLVWV· RQH
KXQGUHGWK DQQLYHUVDU\ YROXPH +HGHQTXLVW et al  
0RVW JHQHWLF RUH GHSRVLW PRGHOV LQ WKLV YROXPH DUH VKRZQ
DVVFKHPDWLFGLDJUDPVZLWKOLWWOHUHDOGDWDWRVXEVWDQWLDWHWKH
JHRPHWULHVGLVFXVVHG
,Q WKH ODVW  \HDUV WKH PDMRULW\ RI RUH GHSRVLW UHVHDUFK
ZRUNKDGQRWDGHTXDWHO\FRQVLGHUHGWKHWUXH'JHRPHWU\RI
GHSRVLWVWKLVLVDVXUSULVLQJRYHUVLJKWDVPDQ\WKRXVDQGVRI
JHRORJLVWVDURXQGWKHZRUOGPRGHOGHSRVLWVHYHU\GD\XVLQJ
'VRIWZDUHDQGWKH\KDYHGRQHVRVLQFHWKHV,WZRXOG
DSSHDU WKDW OLWWOH RU QR JHRPHWULF RU VWUXFWXUDO LQIRUPDWLRQ
LV EHLQJ IHG EDFN LQWR DFDGHPLD WR DVVLVW ZLWK UHÀQLQJ WKH
WKHRUHWLFDO RUH GHSRVLW PRGHOV 3HUKDSV WKLV UHÁHFWV WKH
VHFWLRQE\VHFWLRQ PHFKDQLFDO DQG QRQJHRORJLFDO DSSURDFK
WR JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ SUHYDOHQW LQ WKH PLQHUDOV LQGXVWU\
UDWKHUWKDQDGHVLUHWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHJHRORJ\RIJUDGHDQG
OLWKRORJLFDO GLVWULEXWLRQV LQ VSDFH :LWK WKH LQWURGXFWLRQ
RI LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ &RZDQ et al   JHRORJLVWV ZKR
SUHYLRXVO\ GLJLWLVHG LQ GULOO KROH VHFWLRQ IHQFHV FDQ QRZ
JHQHUDWH'PRGHOVUDSLGO\KRZHYHUWKHEDVLFLQFRUSRUDWLRQ
RI'VWUXFWXUDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJLQWRWKHJHRORJLFDOPRGHOOLQJ
SURFHVVKDVQRWFKDQJHGDQGUHPDLQVYLUWXDOO\QRQH[LVWHQWD
GHFDGHDIWHULPSOLFLWPRGHOOLQJZDVLQWURGXFHG
7KH WUDGLWLRQDO SURFHVV RI VHFWLRQDO GLJLWLVDWLRQ LV VORZO\
RI WLPH EHIRUH LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ EHFRPHV DQ LQGXVWU\
EHVW SUDFWLFH IRU JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ &XUUHQWO\ WKH EOLQG
PHFKDQLFDO RU DOJRULWKPLF DSSURDFK WR PRGHOOLQJ UHPDLQV
SRSXODU ZLWK PDQ\ LPSOLFLW PRGHOOHUV ,URQLFDOO\ ZLWK LW
FRPHVWKHLQFUHDVHGULVNRIJHQHUDWLQJPLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVDW
D PXFK IDVWHU UDWH WKDQ ZLWK VHFWLRQDO GLJLWLVDWLRQ $GGHG
WR WKLV QHZ HQYLURQPHQW ZKHUH IDVW PRGHOOLQJ LV SRVVLEOH
JHQHUDWLQJ PXOWLSOH JHRORJLFDO PRGHOV RU LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV LV
EHFRPLQJSRSXODULQFXUUHQWSUDFWLFHZKLFKLVSXUSRUWHGWR
UHGXFH PLQLQJ DQG H[SORUDWLRQ ULVN HJ -DFNVRQ et al 
6ULYDVWDYD   KRZHYHU WKHUH LV QR VHQVH LQ JHQHUDWLQJ
PXOWLSOH PRGHO UHDOLVDWLRQV GHYRLG RI VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO
XQGHUVWDQGLQJZKHQPRVWPLQHUDOGHSRVLWVDUHVWUXFWXUDOO\
FRQWUROOHG RU PRGLÀHG :LWK VWUXFWXUDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJ D
VLQJOH PRGHO WKDW LQFRUSRUDWHV VWUXFWXUDO NQRZOHGJH E\ WKH
DSSOLFDWLRQ RI ;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ DQDO\VLV LV OLNHO\ WR
UHGXFH XQFHUWDLQW\ FRPSDUHG WR PXOWLSOH PRGHOV WKDW DUH
FRPSOHWHO\GHYRLGRIÀUVWRUGHUVWUXFWXUDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI
WKHGHSRVLW7KHUHDOVRLVVLPSO\QRVKRUWFXWWRWKHPRGHOOLQJ
SURFHVV RWKHU WKDQ D VROLG HGXFDWLRQ LQ VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJ\
LUUHVSHFWLYH RI WKH FODLPV RI PDUNHWLQJ PDWHULDO RI VRIWZDUH
YHQGRUV
7KH0,3DVVLVWHGSOXQJHSURMHFWLRQPHWKRGFDQEHDSSOLHG
WR PRVW GHSRVLWV UHJDUGOHVV RI FRPPRGLW\ DQG VWUXFWXUDO
VW\OH6RPHGHSRVLWVPD\UHTXLUHGRPDLQLQJRIWKHZHDWKHUHG
SURÀOH IURP WKH IUHVK URFN OLWKRORJLHV EXW WKH DXWKRU·V
H[SHULHQFH LV WKDW PDQ\ JUDGH GLVWULEXWLRQV DOWHUHG E\
VXUÀFLDOSURFHVVHVVWLOOUHÁHFWWKHSULPDU\VWUXFWXUDOFRQWUROV
LQWKHJUDGH HJ6WDQGLQJ 
'HWHUPLQLQJ WKH GHSRVLWVFDOH VWUXFWXUDO FRQWUROV LV WKH
VLQJOH PRVW LPSRUWDQW VWHS LQ WKH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH
GHSRVLW DQG LQ WXUQ SURYLGHV D VROLG IUDPHZRUN IRU WKH
PRGHOOLQJSURFHVV
 ‘X-Ray Plunge Projection’ – Understanding Structural Geology from Grade Data | E J Cowan
Structural geology experience is essential
([SHULHQFH LQ ' JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ LV QRW UHTXLUHG WR
VXFFHVVIXOO\ DSSO\ WKH ;UD\ SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ VWUDWHJ\
GHVFULEHGLQWKLVSDSHUKRZHYHUJHRORJLVWVRUQRQJHRORJLVWV
ZKR PD\ KDYH H[WHQVLYH H[SHULHQFH LQ VRIWZDUHEDVHG '
PRGHOOLQJRUUHVRXUFHHVWLPDWLRQ²EXWZKRKDYHOLWWOHRUQR
VWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDOÀHOGH[SHULHQFH²FDQQRWEHH[SHFWHGWR
EHDEOHWRUHDVRQDEO\LQWHUSUHWVWUXFWXUDOGHWDLOVIURPJUDGH
GLVWULEXWLRQVLIWKH\KDYHQRWVHHQWKHPEHIRUH
,W FDQQRW EH VWUHVVHG HQRXJK WKDW WKH SUHUHTXLVLWH IRU
D VXFFHVVIXO RXWVLGHLQ DSSURDFK WR VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO
DQDO\VLV DV RXWOLQHG LQ WKLV SDSHU LV WKDW WKH JHRORJLVW LV
WUDLQHG LQ DGYDQFHG OHYHOV RI VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJ\ DV ZHOO DV
EHLQJ FRPSHWHQW ZLWK VWUXFWXUDO PDSSLQJ SUHIHUDEO\ ZLWK
H[SHULHQFHLQPDSSLQJPXOWLSO\GHIRUPHGWHUUDLQV:LWKRXW
WKLVWUDLQLQJDQGH[SHULHQFHWKHH[SHFWHGVWUXFWXUDOIHDWXUHV
DQGDOWHUDWLRQSDWWHUQVVHHQDWYDULRXVVFDOHVLQJUDGHGDWD
UDQJLQJIURPEULWWOHWRGXFWLOH )LJXUHVDQG FDQQRWUHDGLO\
EH LGHQWLÀHG RU XQGHUVWRRG LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI SDUDJHQHWLF
KLVWRU\ E\ WKH JHRORJLVW 7KH WHFKQLTXHV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV
SDSHU DUH QRW EODFNER[ PHWKRGV EXW DUH EDVHG RQ ZHOO
HVWDEOLVKHG PHWKRGV RI VWUXFWXUDO DQDO\VLV GHYHORSHG RYHU
WKHODVWFHQWXU\ HJ6DQGHU0DF.LQ)OLQQ
5DPVD\   7KHVH PHWKRGV DUH PHUHO\ WUDQVIHUUHG IURP
WKHLUWUDGLWLRQDOÀHOGDSSOLFDWLRQWRWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIGULOO
KROH JUDGH GDWD :KLOH FRPSXWHU VRIWZDUH DQG KDUGZDUH
UHSODFHVWRROVOLNHWKHFRPSDVVDQGPDSIRUWKHJHRORJLVWWR
FRQGXFWVWUXFWXUDODQDO\VLVDWWKHGHSRVLWVFDOHWKHVNLOOVRI
WKH LQWHUSUHWHU RULJLQDWH IURP JRRG ÀHOG JHRORJ\ SUDFWLFHV
DQG QRW IURP VNLOOV WKDW DUH JDLQHG IURP FRPSXWHUEDVHG
PRGHOOLQJ
Modelling mineral deposits – a three-tiered puzzle
7KH PHWKRGRORJ\ LQWURGXFHG LQ WKLV SDSHU HIIHFWLYHO\
UHSUHVHQWVDWKUHHWLHUHGSX]]OH7KDWLVDQLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI
JUDGH GDWD IURP D PLQHUDOLVHG V\VWHP LV D SX]]OH ZLWKLQ D
SX]]OHZLWKLQDSX]]OHDQGWKHWKUHHSX]]OHOHYHOVDUH PRGHOOLQJ DOORZ DQ\ QXPEHU RI YHU\ SUHFLVH JHRORJLFDO
 ,GHQWLI\LQJWKHDSSURSULDWHGLUHFWLRQRIYLHZXVLQJ0,3
RU;UD\YLHZ,QPDQ\GHSRVLWVWKHUHLVHIIHFWLYHO\RQO\
DVLQJOHYLHZGLUHFWLRQZKLFKPDNHVJHRPHWULFVHQVHIRU
WKHJUDGHGDWDVRWKLVLVWKHÀUVWOHYHORIWKHSX]]OH7KHUH
LV SRWHQWLDO WR DXWRPDWH WKLV VWHS KRZHYHU LQ VSDUVHO\
GULOOHG SURVSHFWV RU LQ FDVHV ZKHUH WKHUH DUH PDQ\
SOXQJHGLUHFWLRQV )LJXUHL WKHMXGJHPHQWFRPHVGRZQ
WRKXPDQH[SHULHQFHDWLGHQWLI\LQJSDWWHUQVDVDUHVXOWRI
VHHLQJPDQ\GDWDVHWVIURPDOOW\SHVRIGHSRVLWV
 7KH VHFRQG OHYHO RI WKH SX]]OH LV WR FRPSUHKHQG WKH
0,3 SDWWHUQV VHHQ LQ WKH GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ YLHZ
3UDFWLFDO ÀHOG DQG WKHRUHWLFDO H[SHULHQFH LQ VWUXFWXUDO
JHRORJ\LVHVVHQWLDOIRUDQDFFXUDWHJHRORJLFDODVVHVVPHQW
 7KH ODVW SX]]OH OHYHO LV WKH DSSURDFK WR JHRORJLFDO
PRGHOOLQJ $OWKRXJK WKLV VWHS LV QRW GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV
SDSHU WKH HIIHFWLYH XVH RI LQIRUPDWLRQ LGHQWLÀHG DW
WKH VHFRQG OHYHO LV NH\ WR HQDEOLQJ DFFXUDWH JHRORJLFDO
PRGHOOLQJ QHFHVVDU\ IRU UHVRXUFH HYDOXDWLRQ ,PSOLFLW
PRGHOOLQJLVIDYRXUHGEHFDXVHLWVDYHVWLPHDQGLPSURYHV
SUHFLVLRQ EXW DV ORQJ DV WKH ÀUVW WZR OHYHOV DUH VROYHG
WUDGLWLRQDOH[SOLFLWPRGHOOLQJPHWKRGVFDQDOVREHXVHG
6ROYLQJHDFKSX]]OHOHYHOLQVHTXHQFHFDQXOWLPDWHO\XQORFN
WKH PRVW DFFXUDWH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ DQG JHRPHWU\ RI PLQHUDO
GHSRVLWV,PSRUWDQWO\HDFKVWHSFDQRQO\EHDFKLHYHGDUPHG
ZLWKWKHDSSURSULDWHNQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVRXWOLQHGDERYH
1HYHUWKHOHVVPRVWGHSRVLWDQDO\VLVVWXPEOHVDWOHYHODQG
JRHV RII RQ D WDQJHQW VLPSO\ EHFDXVH WKH YLHZ RULHQWDWLRQ
WR FRQGXFW WKH JHRORJLFDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ LV LQDSSURSULDWH
7\SLFDOO\ WKLV LV EHFDXVH WKH JHRORJLVW XVHG WUDGLWLRQDO
VHFWLRQDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ PHWKRGRORJ\ ZKLFK LV FXUUHQWO\
WKH PRVW SRSXODU PHWKRG RI JHRORJLFDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
KRZHYHU WKH DXWKRU GRHV QRW EHOLHYH WKDW WKLV WHFKQLTXH LV
EHQHÀFLDODVWKHSOXQJHGLUHFWLRQRIPLQHUDOGHSRVLWVKDVQR
UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH GULOO KROH IHQFH OLQH RULHQWDWLRQ %DUQHV
DQG *RVVDJH   7KH &DQDGLDQ ,QVWLWXWH RI 0LQLQJ
0HWDOOXUJ\ DQG 3HWUROHXP·V &,0  (VWLPDWLRQ RI 0LQHUDO
5HVRXUFH DQG 0LQHUDO 5HVHUYHV %HVW 3UDFWLFH *XLGHOLQHV
&,0   DSSHDUV WR KDYH UHFRJQLVHG WKLV LVVXH DQG WKH
JXLGHOLQHVIRULQWHUSUHWDWLRQVPDGHLQ'VRIWZDUHVWRSVKRUW
RIUHFRPPHQGLQJWKDWJHRORJLVWVFRQGXFW'LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV
LQ WUDGLWLRQDO VHFWLRQV DQG SODQ YLHZV ,QVWHDG &,0·V
UHFRPPHQGDWLRQ LV IRU JHRORJLVWV WR validate WKH LQWHUSUHWHG
PRGHOV ¶RQ SODQ DQG RUWKRJRQDO VHFWLRQ WR HYDOXDWH WKH
UHOLDELOLW\RIWKHJHRORJLFDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ·%HFDXVHVHFWLRQDOO\
GLJLWLVHG LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV KDYH SUROLIHUDWHG LQ WKH LQGXVWU\
WKLV UHFRPPHQGDWLRQ LV D EROG PRYH E\ WKH &,0 EXW LW LV
FRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHÀQGLQJVRIWKLVSDSHUDQGDQH[DPSOHRI
PRGHUQJHRORJLFDOEHVWSUDFWLFH
$QRWKHUUHFHQWWUHQGWRPRGHOOLQJPLQHUDOGHSRVLWVLVWKDWRI
WU\LQJWRVROYHOHYHORIWKHSX]]OHZLWKRXWÀUVWTXHVWLRQLQJ
RUVROYLQJWKHSUHYLRXVOHYHOVZKLFKLVHVVHQWLDOIRUHIIHFWLYH
DQG DFFXUDWH JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ WKLV
DSSURDFK LV KRZ ZRUNÁRZV RI VRPH LPSOLFLW PRGHOOLQJ
VRIWZDUH SDFNDJHV DUH GHVLJQHG WRGD\ 7KLV GDWDFHQWULF
PRGHOOLQJ ZRUNÁRZ IROORZHG E\ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ GHSHQGV
HQWLUHO\RQPHDQLQJIXOSDWWHUQV¶IDOOLQJRXW·RIWKHGDWDZKLFK
LQPRVWFDVHVGRHVQRWRFFXUXQOHVVWKHGDWDDUHYHU\GHQVHO\
VDPSOHG&RPSDQLHVZKRUHO\RQVXFKVRIWZDUHZRUNÁRZV
ZLOOIDLOWRH[WUDFWPD[LPXPEHQHÀWIURPWKHLUGDWDDQGPD\
DOVREHXQNQRZLQJO\LQWURGXFLQJLQWHUSUHWDWLRQXQFHUWDLQW\
LQWR WKHLU UHVRXUFH HYDOXDWLRQ SURFHVV ,Q FRQWUDVW WR VORZ
VHFWLRQDOGLJLWLVDWLRQPRGHUQLPSOLFLWPHWKRGVRIJHRORJLFDO
PRGHOVWREHFRQVWUXFWHGIURPGULOOKROHDQGPDSSHGGDWD
7KLVFDSDELOLW\LVERWKDEOHVVLQJDQGDFXUVHDVDOOPRGHOV
ZLOOSHUIHFWO\KRQRXUWKHGULOOKROHGDWDDQGFDQEHFUHDWHG
YHU\ UDSLGO\ HYHQ E\ D VRIWZDUH XVHU ZKR PD\ QRW KDYH
WKHDSSURSULDWHHGXFDWLRQLQJHRORJ\$Q\QXPEHURIWKHVH
PRGHOVZLOOORRN¶UHDO·DVWKH\KRQRXUWKHGDWDEXWLQUHDOLW\
FDQ EH DOO JHRORJLFDOO\ LQDFFXUDWH DQG WKLV LV XQIRUWXQDWHO\
WKH H[SHFWHG FRQVHTXHQFH RI VNLSSLQJ VWUDLJKW WR VROYLQJ
OHYHORIWKHSX]]OH
CONCLUSIONS
9LUWXDOO\ DOO PLQHUDO GHSRVLWV DUH HPSODFHG GXULQJ WKH
IRUPDWLRQ RI VWUXFWXUDO SHUPHDELOLW\ RU KDYH EHHQ DOWHUHG
LQ JHRPHWU\ GXULQJ GHIRUPDWLRQ \HW FXULRXVO\ VWUXFWXUDO
JHRORJ\ UHPDLQV DQ XQGHUDSSUHFLDWHG VXEGLVFLSOLQH LQ
HFRQRPLFJHRORJ\*HQHUDOO\JHRORJLVWVZKRPRGHOJHRORJ\
IRU UHVRXUFH HYDOXDWLRQ SXUSRVHV GR QRW FRQVXOW VWUXFWXUDO
JHRORJLVWVIRUPRGHOOLQJWDVNVRUDGYLFHQRUVWXG\VWUXFWXUDO
JHRORJ\ OLWHUDWXUH <HW WKH DXWKRU·V UHVHDUFK DQG SUDFWLFDO
H[SHULHQFHVRPHRIZKLFKLVRXWOLQHGLQWKLVSDSHUVKRZVWKDW
XQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJ\ZLOOSODFHDQ\PLQHUDO
GHSRVLW LQ D JHRORJLFDOO\ ORJLFDO IUDPHZRUN IRU PLQLQJ DQG
QHDUPLQHH[SORUDWLRQVXFFHVV:LWKWKLVPRGHUQLVHGYHUVLRQ
RI GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ LW LV QRZ SRVVLEOH WR H[SRVH D
ZHDOWKRILQIRUPDWLRQWKDWFDQLPPHGLDWHO\EHQHÀWDQ\RSHQ
Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation 217
Chapter 3 | Geological Interpretation and Geological Modelling
SLWDQGXQGHUJURXQGPLQLQJRSHUDWLRQWKDWKDVJUDGHFRQWURO
GDWD VHWV JDWKHULQJ GXVW LQ LWV DUFKLYHV 7KH NQRZOHGJH
JDLQHG IURP VXFK DQ H[HUFLVH FDQ WKHQ EH H[WUDSRODWHG WR
LQWHOOLJHQW LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI UHODWLYHO\ OHVV GHQVH JUDGH GDWD
IURP H[SORUDWLRQ GULOOLQJ )LUVWRUGHU VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO
XQGHUVWDQGLQJ VKRXOG IRUP D FRUH RI NQRZOHGJH WR JXLGH
QRW RQO\ JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ EXW IRUP D IUDPHZRUN IRU
YDULRJUDSK\DQGUHVRXUFHHVWLPDWLRQ /DLQJ 
7KH HPSKDVLV RQ VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJ\ FUHDWHV FKDOOHQJHV
$QHFGRWDOO\WKHDXWKRULVDZDUHWKDWYHU\IHZJHRORJLVWVDUH
YHUVHGLQVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJ\,WLVHVWLPDWHGWKDW per centRI
WKHWLPHRUPRUHGULOOFRUHRULHQWDWLRQDQGWKHTXDOLW\RIGDWD
DUHVXVSHFWHGWRFRQWDLQHUURUVRUPLVWDNHV +ROFRPE
'DYLV    DQG WKH DXWKRU EHOLHYHV WKDW WKLV UHÁHFWV
WKH JHQHUDO VWDWH RI WKH PLQHUDOV LQGXVWU\ QRW FDULQJ DERXW
VWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDOLVVXHV%\FRQWUDVWD per centIDLOXUH
UDWHZRXOGQRWEHWROHUDWHGIRUWKHTXDOLW\DVVXUDQFHTXDOLW\
FRQWURO RI DVVD\ GDWD $OWKRXJK WHFKQRORJLHV VXFK DV WKH
GRZQKROHWHOHYLHZHUDUHOLNHO\WRUHSODFHPDQXDOVWUXFWXUDO
FRUH ORJJLQJ LQ VRPH VXLWDEOH RSHUDWLRQV HJ *UDGLP et al
  WKH FROOHFWLRQ RI KLJKTXDOLW\ VWUXFWXUDO GDWD ZLOO
VWLOO UHTXLUH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ DQG IRUPXODWLRQ RI D VHQVLEOH
JHRORJLFDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI DQ\ GHSRVLW :KLOH WUDGLWLRQDO
PHWKRGVKDYHUHOLHGRQWKHLQVLGHRXWPHWKRGRIVWUXFWXUDO
JHRORJLFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQLWLVSRVVLEOHWRREWDLQWKHVWUXFWXUDO
FRQWH[W DW WKH GHSRVLW VFDOH DQG ZRUN IURP WKH RXWVLGHLQ
UHVXOWLQJLQDPXFKPRUHFRVWHIIHFWLYHDQGDFFXUDWHPHWKRG
RIJHRORJLFDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQWKDWFDQEHXVHGIRUERWK0LQHUDO
5HVRXUFHHYDOXDWLRQDQGH[SORUDWLRQ
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
7KHLGHDWKDWVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJ\VKRXOGEHDNH\FRPSRQHQWRI
ÀUVWRUGHUVFDOHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIPLQHUDOGHSRVLWVDQGIRUPD
FRUQHUVWRQHIRUJHRORJLFDOPRGHOOLQJEHJDQZKHQWKHDXWKRU
MRLQHG65.&RQVXOWLQJDVDVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDOFRQVXOWDQWLQ
7KHFRPELQDWLRQRIUDSLG'LQWHUSRODWLRQZLWKVWUXFWXUDO
JHRORJLFDOSUDFWLFHZDVIRUPXODWHGE\WKHDXWKRUDQGWKLVOHG
WRWKHDXWKRUFRQWDFWLQJWKH$SSOLHG5HVHDUFK$VVRFLDWLRQRI
1HZ=HDODQG $5$1= LQ$SULODVDUHVXOWRID*RRJOH
VHDUFK7KHDXWKRUOHGWKHGHVLJQDQGPDUNHWLQJRI/HDSIURJ®
VRIWZDUHIURPWRDVJHQHUDOPDQDJHURI=DSDUR/WG
DMRLQWYHQWXUHFRPSDQ\EHWZHHQ65.&RQVXOWLQJ$XVWUDOLD
DQG $5$1= $5$1= SURJUDPPHUV GHYHORSHG /HDSIURJ®
XQGHU WKH GLUHFWLRQ RI 'U +XJKDQ - 5RVV WKH WKHQ FKLHI
VRIWZDUH DUFKLWHFW RI /HDSIURJ® &DUHIXO FRQVLGHUDWLRQ ZDV
PDGHVRWKDWDVWUXFWXUDOJHRORJLFDOIUDPHZRUNIRUPRGHOOLQJ
DVRXWOLQHGLQWKLVSDSHUZDVLPSOHPHQWHGLQWKHGHVLJQRI
/HDSIURJ® DQG +XJKDQ ZDV LQVWUXPHQWDO LQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ
DQG LQFRUSRUDWLQJ WKH VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO WHFKQLTXHV
WR /HDSIURJ® DQG PDNLQJ WKH WRROV ZRUNDEOH +XJKDQ LV
WKDQNHGIRUEHLQJDJRRGOLVWHQHUDQGIRUUHDFKLQJVLJQLÀFDQW
GHYHORSPHQWDO PLOHVWRQHV IRU /HDSIURJ® VRIWZDUH ZLWK WKH
DXWKRURQHRIZKLFKZDVWKHLQFRUSRUDWLRQRI0,3UHQGHULQJ
LQ/HDSIURJ® QRZPDUNHWHGDV/HDSIURJ®0LQLQJ ZKLFKWR
WKLV GD\ LV DQ LQGXVWU\ ÀUVW 'U 3HWHU :LOOLDPV WKH IRUPHU
PDQDJLQJ GLUHFWRU RI 65. &RQVXOWLQJ DQG 0U -LP 7XUSLQ
IRUPHUEXVLQHVVPDQDJHURI/HDSIURJ®DW$5$1=DUHERWK
WKDQNHGIRUWKHLUWLUHOHVVVXSSRUWGXULQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI
/HDSIURJ®IURPWKURXJK,DQ0D\ÀHOGLVWKDQNHG
IRUSURYLGLQJSHUPLVVLRQWRXVHWKHUXJE\XQLRQLPDJHIURP
WKH*UDVV$GVZHEVLWHDQGDFRS\RIWKHUHOHYDQWSDWHQW
7KH FRQFHSWV VXPPDULVHG LQ WKLV SDSHU ZHUH IRUPXODWHG
E\ WKH DXWKRU LQGHSHQGHQWO\ RI $5$1= 7KH XVH RI ;UD\
218 Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation
SOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ DV D SUDFWLFDO VWUXFWXUDO JHRORJLFDO WRRO
LV SUHYLRXVO\ XQSXEOLVKHG DQG DV DW $XJXVW  WKH
ZRUNÁRZVSUHVHQWHGKHUHDUHQRWLQFRUSRUDWHGLQDQ\NQRZQ
FRPPHUFLDOVRIWZDUHZRUNÁRZ
7KLVSDSHUEHQHÀWHGIURPWKHFRQVWUXFWLYHUHYLHZVE\3DXO
+RGNLHZLF] DQG %UHWW 'DYLV DQG RQJRLQJ GLVFXVVLRQV ZLWK
3DXO%UHWWDQG5RQ5HLG
REFERENCES
$UPVWURQJ0Basic Linear GeostatisticsS 6SULQJHU9HUODJ
%HUOLQ 
%DLOH\ ( % DQG 0DF.LQ - +  5HFXPEHQW IROGLQJ LQ WKH
3HQQV\OYDQLD3LHGPRQWSUHOLPLQDU\VWDWHPHQWAmerican Journal
of Science,
%DUQHV-)+DQG*RVVDJH%/7KHGR·VDQGGRQ·WVRIJHRORJLFDO
DQG JUDGH ERXQGDU\ PRGHOV DQG ZKDW \RX FDQ GR DERXW LW LQ
Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation ² The AusIMM Guide
WR *RRG 3UDFWLFH VHFRQG HGLWLRQ SS  7KH $XVWUDODVLDQ
,QVWLWXWHRI0LQLQJDQG0HWDOOXUJ\0HOERXUQH 
%HUWKp ' &KRXNURXQH 3 DQG -HJRX]R 3  2UWKRJQHLVV
P\ORQLWHDQGQRQFRD[LDOGHIRUPDWLRQRIJUDQLWHVWKHH[DPSOH
RIWKH6RXWK$UPHULFDQ6KHDU=RQH-RXUQDORI6WUXFWXUDO*HRORJ\

%URZQ0-:DQG0HULÀHOG0-'HSLFWLRQRILPDJHVXVLQJ
LQYHUVH SHUVSHFWLYH WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ WR SURYLGH ' HIIHFW
,QWHUQDWLRQDO3DWHQW$SSOLFDWLRQ1XPEHU
&DQDGLDQ ,QVWLWXWH RI 0LQLQJ 0HWDOOXUJ\ DQG 3HWUROHXP &,0 
 (VWLPDWLRQ RI 0LQHUDO 5HVRXUFHV DQG 0LQHUDO 5HVHUYHV
%HVW3UDFWLFH*XLGHOLQHV>RQOLQH@$YDLODEOHIURPKWWSZHE
FLPRUJ8VHU)LOHV)LOH(VWLPDWLRQ0LQHUDO5HVRXUFHV0LQHUDO
5HVHUYHVSGI! &DQDGLDQ ,QVWLWXWH RI 0LQLQJ
0HWDOOXUJ\DQG3HWUROHXP0RQWUHDO 
&KDUOHVZRUWK + $ . /DQJHQEHUJ & : DQG 5DPVGHQ - 
'HWHUPLQLQJ D[HV D[LDO SODQHV DQG VHFWLRQV RI PDFURVFRSLF
IROGV XVLQJ FRPSXWHUEDVHG PHWKRGV Canadian Journal of Earth
Sciences
&KLOqV - 3 $XJ & *XLOOHQ $ DQG /HHV 7  0RGHOOLQJ WKH
JHRPHWU\ RI JHRORJLFDO XQLWV DQG LWV XQFHUWDLQW\ LQ ' IURP
VWUXFWXUDOGDWD²WKHSRWHQWLDOÀHOGPHWKRGLQOrebody Modelling
and Strategic Mine Planning ² Uncertainty and Risk Management
Models SS  7KH $XVWUDODVLDQ ,QVWLWXWH RI 0LQLQJ DQG
0HWDOOXUJ\0HOERXUQH 
&RZDQ(-0DJQHWLFIDEULFFRQVWUDLQWVRQWKHLQLWLDOJHRPHWU\
RI WKH 6XGEXU\ ,JQHRXV &RPSOH[ D IROGHG VKHHW RU D EDVLQ
VKDSHGLJQHRXVERG\"7HFWRQRSK\VLFV
&RZDQ(-7KHGHSRVLWPRGHOSDUDGR[LQStructural Geology and
5HVRXUFHV  ([WHQGHG DEVWUDFWV YROXPH HG - 9HDUQFRPEH 
 $XVWUDOLDQ,QVWLWXWHRI*HRVFLHQWLVWV3HUWK)
&RZDQ ( -  7KH P\WK RI VHFWLRQDO JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ SDUW
 >RQOLQH@ $YDLODEOH IURP KWWSZZZRUHÀQGFRPEORJ
RUHILQGBEORJWKHP\WKRIVHFWLRQDOJHRORJLFDO
PRGHOOLQJSDUW!>$FFHVVHG0D\@
&RZDQ ( - %HDWVRQ 5 . 5RVV + - )ULJKW : 5 0F/HQQDQ 7 -
(YDQV75&DUU-&/DQH5*%ULJKW'9*LOOPDQ$-2VKXVW
3$DQG7LWOH\03UDFWLFDOLPSOLFLWJHRORJLFDOPRGHOOLQJ
in Proceedings )LIWK ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 0LQLQJ *HRORJ\ &RQIHUHQFH HG
6'RPLQ\ SS 7KH$XVWUDODVLDQ,QVWLWXWHRI0LQLQJDQG
0HWDOOXUJ\0HOERXUQH 
&RZDQ ( - %HDWVRQ 5 . 5RVV + - )ULJKW : 5 0F/HQQDQ 7 -
DQG 0LWFKHOO 7 -  5DSLG JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ LQ Applied
6WUXFWXUDO*HRORJ\IRU0LQHUDO([SORUDWLRQDQG0LQLQJ,QWHUQDWLRQDO
Symposium Abstract Volume HG 6 9HDUQHFRPEH  
$XVWUDOLDQ,QVWLWXWHRI*HRVFLHQWLVWV3HUWK 
 ‘X-Ray Plunge Projection’ – Understanding Structural Geology from Grade Data | E J Cowan
&RZDQ ( - /DQH 5 * DQG 5RVV + -  /HDSIURJ·V LPSOLFLW
GUDZLQJ WRRO D QHZ ZD\ RI GUDZLQJ JHRORJLFDO REMHFWV RI DQ\
VKDSH UDSLGO\ LQ ' LQ 0LQLQJ *HRORJ\  :RUNVKRS HGV 0
- %HUU\ DQG 0 / 4XLJOH\  ² $XVWUDOLDQ ,QVWLWXWH RI
*HRVFLHQWLVWV3HUWK 
&R[6)&RXSOLQJEHWZHHQGHIRUPDWLRQÁXLGSUHVVXUHVDQG
ÁXLG ÁRZ LQ RUHSURGXFLQJ K\GURWKHUPDO HQYLURQPHQWV LQ
(FRQRPLF*HRORJ\2QH+XQGUHGWK$QQLYHUVDU\9ROXPH ²
HGV - : +HGHQTXLVW - ) + 7KRPSVRQ 5 - *ROGIDUE DQG - 3
5LFKDUGV SS 6RFLHW\RI(FRQRPLF*HRORJLVWV/LWWOHWRQ 
&R[6)(WKHULGJH0$DQG:DOO9-7KHUROHRIWKHÁXLGVLQ
V\QWHFWRQLFPDVVWUDQVSRUWDQGWKHORFDOL]DWLRQRIPHWDPRUSKLF
YHLQW\SH RUH GHSRVLWV LQ PHFKDQLFDO DQG FKHPLFDO 5H 
PRELOL]DWLRQRIPHWDOOLIHURXVPLQHUDOLVDWLRQOre Geology Reviews
HGV%0DUVKDOODQG/%*LOOLDQ 
'DYLV%.3HUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ)HEUXDU\
'DYLV % .  8VH DQG DEXVH RI RULHQWHG GULOO FRUH LQ Mineral
Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation ² The AusIMM Guide to Good
3UDFWLFHVHFRQGHGLWLRQSS 7KH$XVWUDODVLDQ,QVWLWXWHRI
0LQLQJDQG0HWDOOXUJ\0HOERXUQH 
(OOLRWW'7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIEDODQFHGFURVVVHFWLRQVJournal of
Structural Geology
)LVKPDQ(.1H\'5+HDWK'*&RU,)0+RUWRQ.0DQG
-RKQVRQ379ROXPHUHQGHULQJYHUVXVPD[LPXPLQWHQVLW\
SURMHFWLRQLQ&7DQJLRJUDSK\:KDWZRUNVEHVWZKHQDQGZK\
RadioGraphics
)OLQQ '  2Q IROGLQJ GXULQJ WKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO SURJUHVVLYH
GHIRUPDWLRQQuarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London

)OLQQ '  2Q WKH V\PPHWU\ SULQFLSOH DQG WKH GHIRUPDWLRQ
HOOLSVRLGGeological Magazine
*UDGLP 5 'RQDOGVRQ - /HYHWW - %ULJJV 0 &UDZIRUG 0 'XVFL
0DQG7UXHPDQ$7KHSXUVXLWRIEHVWSUDFWLFHDQGXVHRI
LQQRYDWLYHWHFKQLTXHV²FDVHVWXGLHVLQJHRORJLFDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
DQGPRGHOOLQJ*ROG)LHOGV²JURZWKDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOSURMHFWV
in Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation ² The AusIMM Guide
WR *RRG 3UDFWLFH VHFRQG HGLWLRQ SS  7KH $XVWUDODVLDQ
,QVWLWXWHRI0LQLQJDQG0HWDOOXUJ\0HOERXUQH 
*UDVV$GV3W\/WG*UDVV$GV3RUWIROLR>RQOLQH@$YDLODEOHIURP
KWWSZZZJUDVVDGVFRPDXSDJHVSRUWIROLRXQLRQKWPO!
>$FFHVVHG0D\@
+DQVIRUG ' DQG &ROOLQV '  $QDPRUSKLF ' JHRPHWU\
&RPSXWLQJ
+HGHQTXLVW-:7KRPSVRQ-)+*ROGIDUE5-DQG5LFKDUGV-3
HGV  Economic Geology One Hundredth Anniversary Volume
²  6RFLHW\RI(FRQRPLF*HRORJLVWV/LWWOHWRQ 
+REEV % (  3ULQFLSOHV LQYROYHG LQ PRELOLVDWLRQ DQG
UHPRELOL]DWLRQ LQ PHFKDQLFDO DQG FKHPLFDO UH PRELOL]DWLRQ
RI PHWDOOLIHURXV PLQHUDOLVDWLRQ Ore Geology Reviews HGV %
0DUVKDOODQG/%*LOOLDQ 
+ROFRPE53HUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ)HEUXDU\
,VDDNV ( + DQG 6ULYDVWDYD 5 0  An Introduction to Applied
GeostatisticsS 2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV1HZ<RUN 
-DFNVRQ6)UHGHULFNVHQ'6WHZDUW09DQQ-%XUNH$'XJGDOH
- DQG %HUWROL 2  *HRORJLFDO DQG JHRVWDWLVWLFDO ULVN DW WKH
*ROGHQ *LIW DQG 0DJGDOD JROG GHSRVLWV 6WDZHOO $XVWUDOLD LQ
3URFHHGLQJV )LIWK ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 0LQLQJ *HRORJ\ &RQIHUHQFH HG 6
'RPLQ\ SS 7KH$XVWUDODVLDQ,QVWLWXWHRI0LQLQJDQG
0HWDOOXUJ\0HOERXUQH 
.HHU /  ' 6WUHHW DUW WHUUDFRWWD OHJR DUP\PY >RQOLQH@
$YDLODEOH IURP KWWS\RXWXEH7.J;RY=;G! >$FFHVVHG
0D\@
.LOE\ : ( DQG &KDUOHVZRUWK + $ .  &RPSXWHUL]HG
GRZQSOXQJH SURMHFWLRQ DQG WKH DQDO\VLV RI ORZDQJOH WKXUVW
IDXOWV LQ WKH 5RFN\ 0RXQWDLQ )RRWKLOOV RI $OEHUWD &DQDGD
Tectonophysics
.QRSI ( % DQG ,QJHUVRQ (  6WUXFWXUDO SHWURORJ\ Geological
Society of America MemoirS *HRORJLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD
:DVKLQJWRQ 
/DLQJ : 3  5HVRXUFH PRGHOOLQJ ZKDW LV \RXU DUFKLWHFWXUDO
WHPSODWH"LQThe Estimation and Reporting of Resources and JORC:
The Role of Structural Geology HGV7'DYLVDQG-9DQQ S
85 ($XVWUDOLDQ,QVWLWXWHRI*HRVFLHQWLVWV3HUWK).
/DMDXQLH & &RXUULRX[ * DQG 0DQXHO /  )ROLWLRQ ÀHOGV DQG
' FDUWRJUDSK\ LQ JHRORJ\ SULQFLSOHV RI D PHWKRG EDVHG RQ
SRWHQWLDOLQWHUSRODWLRQMathematical Geology
/DQJHQEHUJ & : DQG 5DPVGHQ -  7KH JHRPHWU\ RI IROGV LQ
JUDQLWRLG URFNV RI 1RUWKHDVWHUQ $OEHUWD Tectonophysics 

0DFNHQ]LH ' + DQG :LOVRQ * ,  *HRORJLFDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
DQG JHRORJLFDO PRGHOOLQJ LQ Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve
Estimation – The AusIMM Guide to Good Practice HG$&(GZDUGV 
SS 7KH$XVWUDODVLDQ,QVWLWXWHRI0LQLQJDQG0HWDOOXUJ\
0HOERXUQH 
0DF.LQ-+7KHGRZQVWUXFWXUHPHWKRGRIYLHZLQJJHRORJLFDO
PDSVThe Journal of Geology
0DUVKDOO%DQG*LOOLJDQ/%$QLQWURGXFWLRQWRUHPRELOL]DWLRQ
LQIRUPDWLRQ IURP RUHERG\ JHRPHWU\ DQG H[SHULPHQWDO
FRQVLGHUDWLRQV LQ PHFKDQLFDO DQG FKHPLFDO UH PRELOL]DWLRQ RI
PHWDOLIHURXVPLQHUDOLVDWLRQOre Geology Reviews HGV%0DUVKDOO
DQG/%*LOOLDQ 
3DWWHUVRQ 0 6 DQG :HLVV / (  6\PPHWU\ FRQFHSWV LQ WKH
VWUXFWXUDODQDO\VLVRIGHIRUPHGURFNVGeological Society of America
Bulletin
5DJDQ'0 Structural Geology – An Introduction to Geometrical
TechniqueV WKLUG HGLWLRQ  S -RKQ :LOH\ DQG 6RQV,QF1HZ
<RUN 
5DPVD\ - *  )ROGLQJ DQG )UDFWXULQJ RI 5RFNV  S 0F*UDZ
+LOO&DOGZHOO 
6DQGHU %  Gefugekunde der Gesteine (The Structural Petrology of
Rocks)S 6SULQJHU9LHQQD 
6FKZDUW]/)&RPSXWHUDLGHGLOOXVLRQVDPELJXLW\SHUVSHFWLYH
DQGPRWLRQThe Visual Computer
6LPRQ5,DQG*UD\'5,QWHUUHODWLRQVRIPHVRVFRSLFVWUXFWXUHV
DQG VWUDLQ DFURVV D VPDOO UHJLRQDO IROG 9LUJLQLD $SSDODFKLDQV
Journal of Structural Geology
6ODGH 5  )HOLFH 9DULQL ² DQDPRUSKLF SDLQWLQJV >RQOLQH@
$YDLODEOH IURP KWWSURVLHVODGHEORJVSRWFRPDX
IHOLFHYDULQLDQDPRUSKLFSDLQWLQJVKWPO! >$FFHVVHG  0D\
@
6ULYDVWDYD503UREDELOLVWLFPRGHOOLQJRIRUHOHQVJHRPHWU\
DQDOWHUQDWLYHWRGHWHUPLQLVWLFZLUHIUDPHVMathematical Geology

6WDQGLQJ-*6WUXFWXUDOJHRORJ\LQXQIDPLOLDUWHUUDQHFRQWUROV
RQ ODWHULWHKRVWHG QLFNHO PLQHUDOLVDWLRQ DW 5DYHQVWKRUSH :$
in 6WUXFWXUDO *HRORJ\ DQG 5HVRXUFHV  ([WHQGHG DEVWUDFWV
YROXPH HG-9HDUQFRPEH SS $XVWUDOLDQ,QVWLWXWH
RI*HRVFLHQWLVWV3HUWK 
7KUHHW5/'RZQVWUXFWXUHPHWKRGRIYLHZLQJJHRORJLFPDSV
WR REWDLQ VHQVH RI IDXOW VHSDUDWLRQ Geological Society of America
Bulletin
7UHDJXV 6 + 7UHDJXV - ( DQG 'URRS * 7 5  6XSHUSRVHG
GHIRUPDWLRQV DQG WKHLU K\EULG HIIHFWV WKH 5KRVFRO\Q $QWLFOLQH
XQUDYHOOHGJournal of the Geological Society
Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation 219
Chapter 3 | Geological Interpretation and Geological Modelling

7XUQHU ) - DQG :HLVV / (  Structural Analysis of Metamorphic :LNLSHGLDFRQWULEXWRUVD)LOH+DQV+ROEHLQWKH<RXQJHU²7KH

7HFWRQLWHVS 0F*UDZ+LOO1HZ<RUN  $PEDVVDGRUV*RRJOH$UW3URMHFWMSJ>RQOLQH@:LNLSHGLD7KH)UHH
Encyclopedia >RQOLQH@$YDLODEOHIURPKWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJ
9DULQL )  )HOLFH 9DULQL >RQOLQH@ $YDLODEOH IURP KWWS
ZLNL)LOH+DQVB+ROEHLQBWKHB<RXQJHUBB7KHB$PEDVVDGRUVBB
KWWSZZZYDULQLRUJ!>$FFHVVHG0D\@
*RRJOHB$UWB3URMHFWMSJ!>$FFHVVHG0D\@
:DOOLV-:0LOOHU75/HUQHU&$DQG.OHHUXS(&7KUHH
:LNLSHGLD FRQWULEXWRUV E )LOH 2SWLVFKH LOOXVLRQ SLDQRMSJ
GLPHQVLRQDO GLVSOD\ LQ QXFOHDU PHGLFLQH IEEE Trans Med
>RQOLQH@:LNLSHGLD7KH)UHH(QF\FORSHGLD>RQOLQH@$YDLODEOHIURP
Imaging  
KWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL)LOH2SWLVFKHBLOOXVLRQBSLDQR
:LNLSHGLD FRQWULEXWRUV D )LOH +ROEHLQ 6NXOOMSJ >RQOLQH@ MSJ!>$FFHVVHG0D\@
:LNLSHGLD WKH )UHH (QF\FORSHGLD $YDLODEOH IURP KWWS
:LNLSHGLDFRQWULEXWRUV0D[LPXPLQWHQVLW\SURMHFWLRQ>RQOLQH@
HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL)LOH+ROEHLQB6NXOOMSJ! >$FFHVVHG 
:LNLSHGLDWKH)UHH(QF\FORSHGLD>RQOLQH@$YDLODEOHIURPKWWS
0D\@
HQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL0D[LPXPBLQWHQVLW\BSURMHFWLRQ!
:LNLSHGLD FRQWULEXWRUV E )LOH )LOHG OHJR WHUUDFRWWD DUP\ >$FFHVVHG0D\@
MSJ >RQOLQH@ :LNLSHGLD 7KH )UHH (QF\FORSHGLD $YDLODEOH IURP
KWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL)LOHGBOHJRBWHUUDFRWWDBDUP\
MSJ!>$FFHVVHG0D\@

220 Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation