Motivation - Background Reading - Met e Learning

Employee motivation.
Motivation in the workplace- theory and practice
Employee motivation, the organizational environment and productivity
Employee Motivation: Theory and

practice
The job of a manager in the workplace is to get things done through
employees. To do this the manager should be able to motivate
employees. But that's easier said than done! Motivation practice and
theory are difficult subjects, touching on several disciplines.
In spite of enormous research, basic as well as applied, the subject of

motivation is not clearly understood and more often than not poorly
practiced. To understand motivation one must understand human nature
itself. And there lies the problem!
Human nature can be very simple, yet very complex too. An

understanding and appreciation of this is a prerequisite to effective
employee motivation in the workplace and therefore effective
management and leadership.
These articles on motivation theory and practice concentrate on various

theories regarding human nature in general and motivation in particular.
Included are articles on the practical aspects of motivation in the
workplace and the research that has been undertaken in this field, notably
by Douglas McGregor (theory y), Frederick Herzberg (two factor
motivation hygiene theory,) Abraham Maslow (theory z, hierarchy of
needs), Elton Mayo (Hawthorne Experiments) Chris Argyris Rensis Likert
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Employee motivation. Motivation in the workplace- theory and practice
and David McClelland (achievement motivation.)
Why study and apply employee motivation principles?

Quite apart from the benefit and moral value of an altruistic approach to
treating colleagues as human beings and respecting human dignity in all
its forms, research and observations show that well motivated employees
are more productive and creative. The inverse also holds true. The
schematic below indicates the potential contribution the practical
application of the principles this paper has on reducing work content in the
organization.
Motivation is the key to performance improvement

There is an old saying you can take a horse to the water but you cannot
force it to drink; it will drink only if it's thirsty - so with people. They will do
what they want to do or otherwise motivated to do. Whether it is to excel
on the workshop floor or in the 'ivory tower' they must be motivated or
driven to it, either by themselves or through external stimulus.
Are they born with the self-motivation or drive? Yes and no. If no, they can
be motivated, for motivation is a skill which can and must be learnt. This is
essential for any business to survive and succeed.
Performance is considered to be a function of ability and motivation, thus:
● Job performance =f(ability)(motivation)
Ability in turn depends on education, experience and training and its

improvement is a slow and long process. On the other hand motivation
can be improved quickly. There are many options and an uninitiated
manager may not even know where to start. As a guideline, there are
broadly seven strategies for motivation.

● Positive reinforcement / high expectations

● Effective discipline and punishment
● Treating people fairly
● Satisfying employees needs
● Setting work related goals
● Restructuring jobs
● Base rewards on job performance
These are the basic strategies, though the mix in the final 'recipe' will vary
from workplace situation to situation. Essentially, there is a gap between
an individuals actual state and some desired state and the manager tries
to reduce this gap.
Motivation is, in effect, a means to reduce and manipulate this gap. It is

inducing others in a specific way towards goals specifically stated by the
motivator. Naturally, these goals as also the motivation system must
conform to the corporate policy of the organization. The motivational
system must be tailored to the situation and to the organization.
In one of the most elaborate studies on employee motivation, involving

31,000 men and 13,000 women, the Minneapolis Gas Company sought to
determine what their potential employees desire most from a job. This
study was carried out during a 20 year period from 1945 to 1965 and was
quite revealing. The ratings for the various factors differed only slightly
between men and women, but both groups considered security as the
highest rated factor. The next three factors were;
● advancement
● type of work
● company - proud to work for

Surprisingly, factors such as pay, benefits and working conditions were

given a low rating by both groups. So after all, and contrary to common
belief, money is not the prime motivator. (Though this should not be
regarded as a signal to reward employees poorly or unfairly.)
Next | The theorists and their theories (1 of 2)
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team

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Douglas McGregor. Theory X Theory Y employee motivation theory
Employee Motivation, the Organizational Environment and Productivity
Human Relations Contributors
Douglas McGregor
Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor in his book, "The Human Side of Enterprise" published

in 1960 has examined theories on behavior of individuals at work, and he
has formulated two models which he calls Theory X and Theory Y.
Theory X Assumptions
The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it
if he can.
● Because of their dislike for work, most people must be controlled and
threatened before they will work hard enough.
● The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes responsibility, is
unambiguous, and desires security above everything.
● These assumptions lie behind most organizational principles today,
and give rise both to "tough" management with punishments and tight
controls, and "soft" management which aims at harmony at work.
● Both these are "wrong" because man needs more than financial
rewards at work, he also needs some deeper higher order motivation -
the opportunity to fulfill himself.
● Theory X managers do not give their staff this opportunity so that the
employees behave in the expected fashion.
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Theory Y Assumptions
● The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as
play or rest.
● Control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work,
man will direct himself if he is committed to the aims of the
organization.
● If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the
organization.
● The average man learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept
but to seek responsibility.
● Imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work
problems by a large number of employees.
● Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual
potentialities of the average man are only partially utilized.
Comments on Theory X and Theory Y Assumptions

These assumptions are based on social science research which has been
carried out, and demonstrate the potential which is present in man and
which organizations should recognize in order to become more effective.
McGregor sees these two theories as two quite separate attitudes. Theory
Y is difficult to put into practice on the shop floor in large mass production
operations, but it can be used initially in the managing of managers and
professionals.
In "The Human Side of Enterprise" McGregor shows how Theory Y affects

the management of promotions and salaries and the development of
effective managers. McGregor also sees Theory Y as conducive to
participative problem solving.

It is part of the manager's job to exercise authority, and there are cases in
which this is the only method of achieving the desired results because
subordinates do not agree that the ends are desirable.
However, in situations where it is possible to obtain commitment to

objectives, it is better to explain the matter fully so that employees grasp
the purpose of an action. They will then exert self-direction and control to
do better work - quite possibly by better methods - than if they had simply
been carrying out an order which the y did not fully understand.
The situation in which employees can be consulted is one where the

individuals are emotionally mature, and positively motivated towards their
work; where the work is sufficiently responsible to allow for flexibility and
where the employee can see her or his own position in the management
hierarchy. If these conditions are present, managers will find that the
participative approach to problem solving leads to much improved results
compared with the alternative approach of handing out authoritarian
orders.
Once management becomes persuaded that it is under estimating the

potential of its human resources, and accepts the knowledge given by
social science researchers and displayed in Theory Y assumptions, then it
can invest time, money and effort in developing improved applications of
the theory.
McGregor realizes that some of the theories he has put forward are
unrealizable in practice, but wants managers to put into operation the
basic assumption that:
● Staff will contribute more to the organization if they are treated as

responsible and valued employees.

Next | Rensis Likert
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team


Frederick Herzberg. 2 Factor Hygiene and Motivation Theory
Frederick Herzberg
2 Factor Hygiene and Motivation Theory
Frederick Herzberg, contributed to human relations and motivation two

theories of motivation as follows:
● Hygiene Theory
● Motivation
Herzbergs' first component in his approach to motivation theory involves

what are known as the hygiene factors and includes the work and
organizational environment. These hygiene factors include:
● The organization
● Its policies and its administration
● The kind of supervision (leadership and management, including
perceptions) which people receive while on the job
● Working conditions (including ergonomics)
● Interpersonal relations
● Salary
● Status
● Job security
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These factors do not lead to higher levels of motivation but without them
there is dissatisfaction.
The second component in Herzbergs' motivation theory involves what

people actually do on the job and should be engineered into the jobs
employees do in order to develop intrinsic motivation with the workforce.
The motivators are
● Achievement
● Recognition
● Growth / advancement
● Interest in the job
These factors result from internal instincts in employees, yielding

motivation rather than movement.
Both these approaches (hygiene and motivation) must be done

simultaneously. Treat people as best you can so they have a minimum of
dissatisfaction. Use people so they get achievement, recognition for
achievement, interest, and responsibility and they can grow and advance
in their work.
Therefore, the hygiene and motivation factors can be listed as follows:
Hygiene
● Company policies and administration
● Supervision
● Working conditions and interpersonal relations
● Salary, status and security

Motivators
● Achievement
● Recognition for achievement
● Interest in the task
● Responsibility for enlarged task
● Growth and advancement to higher level tasks
Effects on Individuals of Working Environment

The working environment has an effect on individuals as follows:
● It will provide at least sufficient for his basic needs and often much
more. For example, 50 years ago in the United Kingdom, food and
shelter were a person's basic needs. Today, most families will
consider that the basic needs also include a car, television, overseas
holiday, etc.
● It may or may not provide adequate security. Again, most individuals
seek a secure job, there are others including some men on oil rigs,
who seek high pay for a limited period but with limited security.
● It provides an individual with an identity. As a member of an
organization, he carries out a specific function.
● It also gives the worker comradeship, freedom from boredom, and an
interest during his working life.
● It also provides self-fulfillment for individual where consideration has
been given to ensure that the job is creative and gives job satisfaction.
● It provides the individual with status. There is a status in all jobs
providing the job content is investigated to make the work more
interesting.
Effects on Work Groups of Working Environment

Rensis Likert has already described how the various management styles
in an organization can effect the groups in an organization.

Whilst the working environment will affect individuals, it will undoubtedly

have a greater effect on working groups, since whilst an individual may
have certain needs, he will not obtain those needs if the working
environment does not provide the needs of the working group.
The working group is the instrument of society through which in large

measure the individual acquires his attitudes, opinions, goals and ideals, it
is also one of the fundamental sources of discipline and social controls.
Therefore, the working environment has an effect on groups as follows:
● It will affect the morale of the group.

● It will determine whether the group achieves the objectives set by the
organization.
● It will determine whether the degree of cooperation provided by the
group
● It will motivate the group to give of their best.
● It will determine whether the human relations within an organization
are good or bad.
● It will also affect the relations between management and trade unions.
Next | David McClelland
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team


Human relations school of management. Abraham Maslow- hieararchy of needs model.
Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Introduction
Abraham Maslow carried out his investigations into human behavior

between 1939 and 1943. Maslow suggested that there are five sets of
goals which may be called basic needs.
These are:
● physiological,
● safety,
● love,
● esteem, and
● self-actualization or self-fulfillment.
He arranged these into a series of different levels or the order of

importance of these basic needs.
Man's basic needs are physiological, for example, hunger, thirst, sleep,
etc. When these are satisfied they are replaced by safety needs reflecting
his desire for protection against danger or deprivation.
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These in turn, when satisfied, are replaced by the need for love or
belonging to, which are functions of man's gregariousness and his desire
to belong to a group, to give and receive friendship and to associate
happily with people.
When these needs have been satisfied, there is the esteem needs, i.e.
the desire for self-esteem and self-respect, which are affected by a
person's standing reputation, and his need for recognition and
appreciation.
Finally, individuals have a need for self actualization or a desire for self-
fulfillment, which is an urge by individuals for self-development, creativity
and job satisfaction.
The human hierarchy of needs proposed by Maslow are illustrated on the

following pages.
In the past, management reward systems have attempted to satisfy an

individual's lower level needs for safety and physiological security, for
protection against deprivation and the threat to a worker or his family.
However, management reward systems are now, or should be,

endeavoring to satisfy the individual's higher level needs for esteem and
self-fulfillment. as outlined in the following pages 1 and 2 .
Next | Douglas McGregor
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team



Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Explanation of the Hierarchy of Needs Model (1 of 2)
It can argued that the behavior of an individual at a particular moment is
usually determined by his or her strongest need. It would seem significant,
therefore, for managers (and subordinates?) to have some understanding
about the needs that are commonly most important to people.
An interesting and useable framework that helps explain the strength of

certain needs was developed by Abraham Maslow.
Physiological Needs
According to Maslow, there seems to be a hierarchy into which human
needs arrange themselves, as illustrated in Figure 1.
The physiological needs are shown at the top of the hierarchy because
they tend to have the highest strength until they are somewhat satisfied.
These are the basic human needs to sustain life itself-food, clothing,
shelter. Until these basic needs are satisfied to the degree needed for the
sufficient operation of the body, the majority of a persons activity will
probably be at this level, and the others will provide little motivation.
But what happens to a persons motivation when these basic needs begin
to be fulfilled? Rather than physiological needs, other levels of needs
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become important, and these motivate and dominate the behavior of the
individual. And when these needs are somewhat satiated, other needs
emerge, and so on down the hierarchy.
Safety, or Security Needs

Once physiological needs become gratified, the safety, or security, needs
become predominant, as illustrated in Figure 2. (Available in the PDF
version)
These needs are essentially the need to be free of the fear of physical
danger and deprivation of the basic physiological needs.
In other words, this is a need for self-preservation. In addition to the here

and now, there is a concern for the future.
Will people be able to maintain their property and/or job so they can
provide food and shelter tomorrow and the next day? If an individual's
safety or security is in danger, other things seem unimportant.
Social or Affiliation Needs

Once physiological and safety needs are fairly well satisfied, social or
affiliation will emerge as dominant in the need structure, as illustrated in
Figure 3 (available in the PDF version.)
Since people are social beings, they have a need to belong and to be
accepted by various groups.
When social needs become dominant, a person will strive for meaningful
relations with others.
Esteem Needs

After individuals begin to satisfy their need to belong, they generally want
to be more than just a member of their group. They then feel the need for
esteem- both self-esteem and recognition from others, as seen in Figure 4
(available in the PDF version.)
Most people have a need for a high evaluation of themselves that is firmly
based in reality- recognition and respect from others. Satisfaction of these
esteem needs produces feelings of self-confidence, prestige, power, and
control. People begin to feel that they are useful and have some effect on
their environment.
There are other occasions, though, when people are unable to satisfy
their need for esteem through constructive behavior. When this need is
dominant an individuals may resort to disruptive or immature behaviour; a
child may throw a temper tantrum, employees may engage in work
restriction or arguments with their coworkers or boss.
Thus, recognition is not always obtained through mature or adaptive

behavior. It is sometimes garnered by disruptive and irresponsible
actions.
In fact, some of the social problems we have today may have their roots
in the frustration of esteem needs.
Self-Actualization Needs
Once esteem needs begin to be adequately satisfied, the self-
actualization needs become more pre potent, as shown in Figure 5
(available in the PDF version.) Self actualization is the need to maximize
one's potential, whatever it may be. A musician must play music, a poet
must write, a general must win battles, a professor must teach.
As Maslow expressed it, "What a man can be, he must be." Thus, self-

actualization is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming.

Individuals satisfy this need in different ways. In one person it may be
expressed in the desire to be an ideal mother; in another it may be
expressed in managing an organization; in another it may be expressed
athletically; in still another by playing the piano.
In combat, a soldier may put his life on the line and rush a machine-gun
nest in an attempt to destroy it, knowing full well that his chances for
survival are low. He is not doing it for affiliation or recognition, but rather
for what he thinks is important. In this case, you may consider the soldier
to have self-actualized; to be maximizing the potential of what is important
to him at that time.
The way self-actualization is expressed can change over the life cycle.
For example, a self-actualized athlete may eventually look for other areas
in which to maximize potential as his or her physical attributes change
over time or as his or her horizons broaden.
In addition, the hierarchy does not necessarily follow the pattern

described by Maslow. It was not his intent to say that this hierarchy
applies universally. Maslow felt this was a typical pattern that operates
most of the time. He realized, however, that there were numerous
exceptions to this general tendency.
For example, the Indian leader, Mahatma Gandhi, frequently sacrificed his
physiological and safety needs for the satisfaction of other needs when
India was striving for independence from Great Britain.
In his historic fasts, Gandhi went weeks without nourishment to protest

governmental injustices. He was operating at the self-actualization level
while some of his other needs were unsatisfied.

Next | Needs model explained 2 or Douglas McGregor
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team


George Elton Mayo -Conclusions flowing from his Hawthorne Experiments
Elton Mayo's Hawthorne Experiments
Conclusions
George Elton Mayo was in charge of certain experiments on human

behavior carried out at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric
company in Chicago between 1924 and 1927. His research findings have
contributed to organizational development in terms of human relations
and motivation theory.
Flowing from the findings of these investigations he came to certain

conclusions as follows:
● Work is a group activity.

● The social world of the adult is primarily patterned about work activity.
● The need for recognition, security and sense of belonging is more
important in determining workers' morale and productivity than the
physical conditions under which he works.
● A complaint is not necessarily an objective recital of facts; it is
commonly a symptom manifesting disturbance of an individual's
status position.
● The worker is a person whose attitudes and effectiveness are
conditioned by social demands from both inside and outside the work
plant.
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George Elton Mayo -Conclusions flowing from his Hawthorne Experiments
● Informal groups within the work plant exercise strong social controls
over the work habits and attitudes of the individual worker.
● The change from an established society in the home to an adaptive
society in the work plant resulting from the use of new techniques
tends continually to disrupt the social organization of a work plant and
industry generally.
● Group collaboration does not occur by accident; it must be planned
and developed. If group collaboration is achieved the human relations
within a work plant may reach a cohesion which resists the disrupting
effects of adaptive society.
Next | Abraham Maslow
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team

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Employee motivation theory. Chris Argyris immaturity / maturity motivation theory.
Chris Argyris
Introduction
Even though management based on the assumptions of Theory X is

perhaps no longer widely appropriate in the opinion of McGregor and
others, it is still widely practiced.
Consequently, a large majority of the people in the workplaces today are

treated as immature human beings in their working environments.
In attempting to analyze this situation, Chris Argyris, of Harvard

University, compared bureaucratic / pyramidal values (the organizational
counterpart to Theory X assumptions about people) that still dominate far
too organizations with a more humanistic / democratic value system (the
organizational counterpart to Theory Y assumptions about people) as
outlined in the table below.
Bureaucratic/ Pyramidal Value System

According to Argyris, following bureaucratic or pyramidal values leads to
poor, shallow, and mistrustful relationships.
Because these relationships do not permit the natural and free expression
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of feelings, they are phony or non-authentic and result in decreased

interpersonal competence. "Without interpersonal competence or a
'psychologically safe' environment, the organization is a breeding ground
for mistrust, intergroup conflict, rigidity, and so on, which in turn lead to a
decrease in organizational success in problem solving."
Humanistic / Democratic Value System

If, on the other hand, humanistic or democratic values are adhered to in
an organization, Argyris claims that trusting, authentic relationships will
develop among people and will result in increased interpersonal
competence, intergroup cooperation, flexibility, and the like and should
result in increases in organizational effectiveness.
In this kind of environment people are treated as human beings, both

organizational members and the organization itself are given an
opportunity to develop to the fullest potential, and there is an attempt to
make work exciting and challenging.
Implicit in "living" these values is "treating each human being as a person

with a complex set of needs, all of which are important in her/ his work
and in her/ his life... and providing opportunities for people in
organizations to influence the way in which they relate to work, the
organization, and the environment."
Bureaucratic / Pyramidal Humanistic / Democratic

● Important human relationships- ● The important human

the crucial ones-are those relationships are not only
related to achieving the those related to achieving
organization's objectives, i.e., the organization's objectives
getting the job done. but those related to
maintaining the
organization's internal
system and adapting to the
environment as well.
● Effectiveness in human ● Human relationships

relationship increases as increase in effectiveness as
behavior becomes more all the relevant behavior
rational, logical, and clearly (rational and interpersonal)
communicated; but becomes conscious,
effectiveness decreases as discussible, and
behavior becomes more controllable.
emotional.
● Human relationships are most ● In addition to direction,

effectively motivated by controls, and rewards and
carefully defined direction, penalties, human
authority, and control, as well relationships are most
as appropriate rewards and effectively influenced
penalties that emphasize through authentic
rational behavior and relationships, internal
achievement of the objective. commitment, psychological
success, and the process of
confirmation.
Next | Immaturity / maturity theory

©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team


David McClelland's research into achievement motivation
David McClelland
Achievement Motivation
Over the years behavioral scientists have observed that some people
have an intense need to achieve; others, perhaps the majority, do not
seem to be as concerned about achievement.
This phenomenon has fascinated David C. McClelland. For over twenty

years he and his associates at Harvard University studied this urge to
achieve.
McClelland's research led him to believe that the need for achievement is
a distinct human motive that can be distinguished from other needs. More
important, the achievement motive can be isolated and assessed in any
group.
Characteristics of people with a high need for achievement

McClelland illustrates some of these characteristics in describing a
laboratory experiment.
Participants were asked to throw rings over a peg from any distance they
chose. Most people tended to throw at random-now close, now far away;
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but individuals with a high need for achievement seemed carefully to

measure where they were most likely to get a sense of mastery—not too
close to make the task ridiculously easy or too far away to make it
impossible.
They set moderately difficult but potentially achievable goals. In biology,

this is known as the overload principle.
In weight lifting, for example, strength cannot be in creased by tasks that

can be performed easily or that cannot be performed without injury to the
organism. Strength can be increased by lifting weights that are difficult but
realistic enough to stretch the muscles.
Do people with a high need for achievement behave like

this all the time?
McClelland maintains, only if they can influence the outcome.
Achievement-motivated people are not gamblers. They prefer to work on

a problem rather than leave the outcome to chance.
With managers, setting moderately difficult but potentially achievable

goals may be translated into an attitude toward risks. Many people tend to
be extreme in their attitude toward risks, either favoring wild speculative
gambling or minimizing their exposure to losses.
● Gamblers seem to choose the big risk because the outcome is

beyond their power and, therefore, they can easily rationalize away
their personal responsibility if they lose.
● The conservative individual chooses tiny risks where the gain is small
but secure, perhaps because there is little danger of anything going
wrong for which that person might be blamed.
● Achievement-motivated people take the middle ground, preferring a

moderate degree of risk because they feel their efforts and abilities
will probably influence the outcome. In business, this aggressive
realism is the mark of the successful entrepreneur.
Rewards and achievement-motivated people

Another characteristic of achievement-motivated people is that they seem
to be more concerned with personal achievement than with the rewards of
success. They do not reject rewards, but the rewards are not as essential
as the accomplishment itself.
They get a bigger "kick" out of winning or solving a difficult problem than
they get from any money or praise they receive.
Money, to achievement-motivated people, is valuable primarily as a

measurement of their performance. It provides them with a means of
assessing their progress and comparing their achievements with those of
other people.
They normally do not seek money for status or economic security.
Feedback
A desire by people with a high need for achievement to seek situations in
which they get concrete feedback on how well they are doing is closely
related to this concern for personal accomplishment. Consequently,
achievement-motivated people are often found in sales jobs or as owners
and managers of their own businesses.
In addition to concrete feedback, the nature of the feedback is important

to achievement-motivated people. They respond favorably to information
about their work.

They are not interested in comments about their personal characteristics,

such as how cooperative or helpful they are.
● Affiliation-motivated people might want social or attitudinal feedback.

● Achievement-motivated people might want job-relevant feedback.
They want to know the score.
Why do achievement-motivated people behave as they do?

McClelland claims it is because they habitually spend time thinking about
doing things better.
In fact, he has found that wherever people start to think in achievement

terms, things start to happen.
Examples
College students with a high need for achievement will generally get
better grades than equally bright students with weaker achievement
needs.
● Achievement-motivated people tend to get more raises and are

promoted faster because they are constantly trying to think of better
ways of doing things.
● Companies with many such people grow faster and are more
profitable.
McClelland has even extended his analysis to countries where he related

the presence of a large percentage of achievement-motivated individuals
to the national economic growth.
A taught skill?

Can this motive, the need for achievement, be taught to people?
McClelland was convinced that this can be done. In fact, he also

developed training programs for business people that where designed to
increase their achievement motivation.
He also developed similar programs for other segments of the population.
Achievement-motivated people as managers

Achievement-motivated people can be the backbone of most
organizations, but what can be said about their potential as managers? As
we know, people with a high need for achievement get ahead because as
individuals they are producers they get things done.
However, when they are promoted, when their success depends not only
on their own work but on the activities of others, they may be less
effective. Since they are highly job-oriented and work to their capacity,
they tend to expect others to do the same. As a result, they sometimes
lack the human skills and patience necessary for being effective
managers of people who are competent but have a higher need for
affiliation than they do. In this situation, their overemphasis on producing
frustrates these people and prevents them from maximizing their own
potential.
Thus, while achievement-motivated people are needed in organizations,

they do not always make the best managers unless they develop their
human skills. Being a good producer is not sufficient to make an effective
manager.
McClelland has found that achievement-motivated people are more likely

to be developed in families in which parents hold different expectations for
their children than do other parents.

More importantly, these parents expect their children to start showing

some independence between the ages of six and eight, making choices
and doing things without help, such as knowing the way around the
neighborhood and taking care of themselves around the house. Other
parents tend either to expect this too early, before children are ready, or
to smother the development of the personality of these children.
One extreme seems to foster passive, defeated attitudes as children feel

unwanted at home and incompetent away from home. They are just not
ready for that kind of independence so early. The other extreme yields
either overprotected or over-disciplined children. These children become
very dependent on their parents and find it difficult to break away and
make their own decisions.
The Herzberg link?

McClelland's concept of achievement motivation is also related to
Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory. People with high achievement
motivation tend to be interested in the motivators (the job itself).
Achievement-motivated people want feedback. They want to know how

well they are doing on their job.
On the other hand, people with low achievement motivation are more
concerned about the environment. They want to know how people feel
about them rather than how well they are doing.
Summary
According to David C. McClelland's research, achievement-motivated
people have certain characteristics in common, including;

● the capacity to set high ('stretching') personal but obtainable goals,

● the concern for personal achievement rather than the rewards of
success, and
● the desire for job-relevant feedback (how well am I doing?) rather than
for attitudinal feedback (how well do you like me?).
Next | Chris Argyris
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team


Examples of the self-fulfilling prophecy or Pygmalion effect
Better Management by Perception

How teachers communicate expectations
● Seating low expectation students far from the teacher and/or seating
them in a group
● Paying less attention to lows in academic situations (smiling less
often, maintaining less eye contact, etc.)
● Calling on lows less often to answer questions or to make public
demonstrations
● Waiting less time for lows to answer questions
● Not staying with lows in failure situations (e g. providing fewer clues,
asking fewer follow-up questions)
● Criticizing lows more frequently than highs for incorrect responses
● Praising lows less frequently than highs after successful responses
● Praising lows more frequently than highs for marginal or inadequate
responses
● Providing lows with less accurate and less detailed feedback than
highs
● Failing to provide lows with feedback about their responses as often
as highs
● Demanding less work and effort from lows than from highs
● Interrupting lows more frequently than highs
How managers communicate expectations

● Seating low-expectation employees in low-prestige office areas far
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Examples of the self-fulfilling prophecy or Pygmalion effect
from the manager

● Paying less attention to lows in business situations (smiling less often
and maintaining less eye contact).
● Giving them less information about what's going on in the department.
● Calling on lows less often to work on special projects, state their
opinions, or give presentations
● Waiting less time for lows to state their opinions
● Not staying with lows in failure situations (i.e. providing less help or
giving less advice when subordinates really need it)
● Criticizing lows more frequently than highs for making mistakes
● Praising lows less frequently than highs after successful efforts
● Praising lows more frequently than highs for marginal or inadequate
effort
● Providing lows with less accurate and less detailed feedback on job
performance than highs
● Failing to provide lows with feedback about their job performance as
often as highs
● Demanding less work and effort from lows than from highs
● Interrupting lows more frequently than highs
Next | Job design and work organization
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team

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Introduction
The nature of work and its organization has interested managers,
economists and social scientists for as long as people have been
employed by others to engage in productive activity. (See section on
scientific management.)
Managers have largely been interested in maximizing output from

available resources.
Economists and social scientists have raised questions about the

organization of work in relation to issues of the individual and society in
general. The aims of this section are to:
● Define selected terms applicable to job design and work organization

● Examine the aspects of traditional thinking applicable to job design
and work organization
● Propose alternative factors to be considered that take cognizance of
employees needs
● Generate some ideas on how these factors may be applied in work
situations in existing and new organizations
● Stress the importance of fitting the work to the worker, in order to
achieve the productivity benefit
Job Design Defined
● Job design and work organization is the specification of the

contents, method and relationships of jobs to satisfy
technological and organizational requirements as well as the
http://www.accel-team.com/work_design/index.html (1 of 3) [03/01/2008 13:50:13]

personal needs of job holders.
N.B. A full glossary of terms appropriate to job design and work

organization can be found in the Job Design section of the PDF (which
you can purchase by clicking on the 'Purchase PDF' icon.)
1970's
In the 1970's increased interest in how best to organize work in the light
of:
● The loss of productive effort due to industrial action and absenteeism

● Increased demands for employee participation and industrial
democracy and
● Imposition of employment legislation, which appeared to make the
task of controlling the workforce more difficult.
1980's
In the 1980's, major changes took place in the workplace.
● Recession, with attendant retrenchments

● Increased competition
● Recognition of the need to introduce new technology
● Shift in relative costs away from the worker to the machine and or
process
1990's and the Future Challenge

In the 1990's the trends started in the 80's continue at an increased pace.
The challenge, now and in the future for managers, is the optimum design
of jobs and work organization to meet unsteady circumstances, brought
on in the workplace by changes in the external environment.

Next | Assumptions based on traditional views
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team


Introduction
The previous section dealt with motivation theory and practice. There is
no doubt that motivation is the crux for good performance, but there is no
clear cut answer to the question of how to motivate. The previous pages
gave a glimpse of the answer through various theories and practices.
Money is a factor in motivating people and this section concentrates on

this.
Employee reward systems are discussed in general and later in specifics

in terms of payment by results. Various schemes for financial motivation
are also described.
Money is important!
This is, perhaps, saying the obvious. But it still needs to be said, for a
perusal of the previous section may give the impression to the contrary, at
least judging from Maslow's concept. Refreshing as it is, if the theory was
completely valid then, at least in affluent countries, economic incentives
should have lost all their force. This we know is not correct.
According to Peter Drucker (1974) 'there is not one shred of evidence for
the alleged turning away from material rewards... Antimaterialism is a
myth, no matter how much it is extolled.' In fact, they are taken so much
for granted that their denial may act as a de-motivator. 'Economic
incentives are becoming rights rather than rewards.'
There is no doubt that we live in a money-motivated world. Any amount of
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human relations cannot compensate for a lack of monetary reward. If the

reward is right, good human relations will give that extra zest to a team,
motivating them to give of their best efforts. Insufficient monetary
reward cannot be compensated by good human relations.
Even dedicated footballers do not think of playing for England, they

merely pay 'lip service' to it.; the financial rewards of playing for their clubs
far exceed those recieved from playing from their country .Cricketers and
rugby players no longer play for their own country but opt for the 'highest
bidder'. Professional tennis players have refused to play at Wimbledon,
the 'Mecca' of lawn tennis, because the rewards were not attractive.
It is no different in the industrial world. Strikes for better salary and

rewards do still occur. All this despite the claim of psychologists that
security is the prime need of a person, as indicated in the previous
section. Has the sense of values changed with time? But we are not
concerned here with the philosophical angle, but with hard facts of life in a
commercial world.
Self-motivation can go only so far and it needs to be constantly reinforced

by rewards. In particular, merit must be measured and rewarded regularly,
if it is to be encouraged and sustained. The 'gold banana' in Foxboro has
its origin in just an ordinary banana which one of the pioneers could
muster on the spur of the moment when he discovered extraordinary
performance by one of the employees (see next section.
Next | Rewarding executives
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team


Top Ten Wage Excuses

These are the top 10 reasons given by those employers not paying the minimum
wage in the UK.
● He's a waste of space

● She only wanted £3 an hour
● I didn't think the worker was worth it
● I didn't think it applied to small firms
● He's disabled
● They can't cope on their own and it's more than they'd get in their home
country
● She's on benefits - those and her pay add up to minimum wage
● They're over 65
● They can't speak English
● I only took him on as a favour
Source: HMRC Report August 2006

Chris Argyris immaturity / maturity motivation theory.
Chris Argyris
Immaturity / Maturity Theory
The fact that bureaucratic/ pyramidal values still dominate most organizations, according
to Argyris, has produced many of our current organizational problems.
While at Yale, he examined industrial organizations to determine what effect

management practices have had on individual behavior and personal growth within the
work environment.
Personality changes
According to Argyris, seven changes should take place in the personality of individuals if
they are to develop into mature people over the years.
● First, individuals move from a passive state as infants to a state of increasing

activity as adults.
● Second, individuals develop from a state of dependency upon others as infants to
a state of relative independence as adults.
● Third, individuals behave in only a few ways as infants, but as adults they are
capable of behaving in many ways.
● Fourth, individuals have erratic, casual, and shallow interests as infants but
develop deeper and stronger interests as adults.
● Fifth, the time perspective of children is very short, involving only the present, but
as they mature, their time perspective increases to include the past and the future.
● Sixth, individuals as infants are subordinate to everyone, but they move to equal or
superior positions with others as adults.
● Seventh, as children, individuals lack an awareness of a "self," but as adults they
are not only aware of, but they are able to control "self."
Argyris postulates that these changes reside on a continuum and that the "healthy"
personality develops along the continuum from "immaturity" to "maturity.
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Chris Argyris immaturity / maturity motivation theory.
These changes are only general tendencies, but they give some light on the matter of
maturity. Norms of the individual's culture and personality inhibit and limit maximum
expression and growth of the adult, yet the tendency is to move toward the "maturity" end
of the continuum with age.
Argyris would be the first to admit that few, if any, develop to full maturity.
Next | Theory impact on organizational design
©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team
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Rensis Likert management systems and styles
Rensis Likert
Management Systems and Styles
Dr. Rensis Likert has conducted much research on human behavior within
organizations, particularly in the industrial situation.
He has examined different types of organizations and leadership styles,

and he asserts that to achieve maximum profitability, good labor relations
and high productivity, every organization must make optimum use of their
human assets.
The form of the organization which will make greatest use of the human
capacity, Likert contends, is;
● highly effective work groups linked together in an overlapping pattern

by other similarly effective groups.
Organizations at present have widely varying types of management style

and Likert has identified four main systems:
Management Styles
The exploitive - authoritative system, where decisions are imposed on
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subordinates, where motivation is characterized by threats, where high

levels of management have great responsibilities but lower levels have
virtually none, where there is very little communication and no joint
teamwork.
The benevolent - authoritative system, where leadership is by a

condescending form of master-servant trust, where motivation is mainly
by rewards, where managerial personnel feel responsibility but lower
levels do not, where there is little communication and relatively little
teamwork.
The consultative system, where leadership is by superiors who have

substantial but not complete trust in their subordinates, where motivation
is by rewards and some involvement, where a high proportion of
personnel, especially those at the higher levels feel responsibility for
achieving organization goals, where there is some communication (both
vertical and horizontal) and a moderate amount of teamwork.
The participative - group system, which is the optimum solution, where

leadership is by superiors who have; complete confidence in their
subordinates, where motivation is by economic rewards based on goals
which have been set in participation, where personnel at all levels feel
real responsibility for the organizational goals, where there is much
communication, and a substantial amount of cooperative teamwork.
This fourth system is the one which is the ideal for the profit oriented and
human-concerned organization, and Likert says (The Human
Organization, Mcgraw Hill, 1967) that all organizations should adopt this
system. Clearly, the changes involved may be painful and long-winded,
but it is necessary if one is to achieve the maximum rewards for the
organization.

To convert an organization, four main features of effective management

must be put into practice:
Features of Effective Management

● The motivation to work must be fostered by modern principles and
techniques, and not by the old system of rewards and threats.
● Employees must be seen as people who have their own needs,
desires and values and their self-worth must be maintained or
enhanced.
● An organization of tightly knit and highly effective work groups must
be built up which are committed to achieving the objectives of the
organization.
● Supportive relationships must exist within each work group. These are
characterized not by actual support, but by mutual respect.
The work groups which form the nuclei of the participative group system,
are characterized by the group dynamics:
● Members are skilled in leadership and membership roles for easy

interaction.
● The group has existed long enough to have developed a well
established relaxed working relationship.
● The members of the group are loyal to it and to each other since they
have a high degree of mutual trust.
● The norms, values and goals of the group are an expression of the
values and needs of its members.
● The members perform a "linking-pin" function and try to keep the
goals of the different groups to which they belong in harmony with
each other.
Next | Frederick Herzberg

©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team


Team building - informal group dynamics. Formation of informal groups.
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Motivation - Background Reading - Met e Learning

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Employee motivation.

Motivation in the workplace- theory and practice

Employee motivation, the organizational environment and productivity

Employee Motivation: Theory and

In spite of enormous research, basic as well as applied, the subject of

Human nature can be very simple, yet very complex too. An

These articles on motivation theory and practice concentrate on various

http://www.accel-team.com/motivation/index.html (1 of 4) [03/01/2008 13:45:25]

and David McClelland (achievement motivation.)

Why study and apply employee motivation principles?

Motivation is the key to performance improvement

Performance is considered to be a function of ability and motivation, thus:

● Job performance =f(ability)(motivation)

Ability in turn depends on education, experience and training and its

http://www.accel-team.com/motivation/index.html (2 of 4) [03/01/2008 13:45:25]

● Positive reinforcement / high expectations

Motivation is, in effect, a means to reduce and manipulate this gap. It is

In one of the most elaborate studies on employee motivation, involving

http://www.accel-team.com/motivation/index.html (3 of 4) [03/01/2008 13:45:25]

Surprisingly, factors such as pay, benefits and working conditions were

Next | The theorists and their theories (1 of 2)

©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team

http://www.accel-team.com/motivation/index.html (4 of 4) [03/01/2008 13:45:25]

Employee Motivation, the Organizational Environment and Productivity

Human Relations Contributors

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor in his book, "The Human Side of Enterprise" published

http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_03_mcgregor.html (1 of 4) [03/01/2008 13:46:03]

Comments on Theory X and Theory Y Assumptions

In "The Human Side of Enterprise" McGregor shows how Theory Y affects

http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_03_mcgregor.html (2 of 4) [03/01/2008 13:46:03]

However, in situations where it is possible to obtain commitment to

The situation in which employees can be consulted is one where the

Once management becomes persuaded that it is under estimating the

● Staff will contribute more to the organization if they are treated as

http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_03_mcgregor.html (3 of 4) [03/01/2008 13:46:03]

Next | Rensis Likert

©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team

http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_03_mcgregor.html (4 of 4) [03/01/2008 13:46:03]

Employee Motivation, the Organizational Environment and Productivity

Human Relations Contributors

2 Factor Hygiene and Motivation Theory

Frederick Herzberg, contributed to human relations and motivation two

Herzbergs' first component in his approach to motivation theory involves

http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_05_herzberg.html (1 of 4) [03/01/2008 13:46:16]

The second component in Herzbergs' motivation theory involves what

These factors result from internal instincts in employees, yielding

Both these approaches (hygiene and motivation) must be done

Therefore, the hygiene and motivation factors can be listed as follows:

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Effects on Individuals of Working Environment

Effects on Work Groups of Working Environment

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Whilst the working environment will affect individuals, it will undoubtedly

The working group is the instrument of society through which in large

Therefore, the working environment has an effect on groups as follows:

● It will affect the morale of the group.

Next | David McClelland

©1999 - 2008 Accel-Team

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Employee Motivation, the Organizational Environment and Productivity

Human Relations Contributors

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow carried out his investigations into human behavior