Chapter 6 - HEAT TRANSFER

LECTURE – 1

INTRODUCTION TO MATTER & HEAT

 Any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume is
called matter. It can have different shapes and sizes.
 Matter is composed of molecules.
 Heat is a form of energy whose magnitude or influence depends on the
temperature of the body.
 When two bodies are in contact heat flows from body at higher
temperature to body at lower temperature till the lower temperature of
both is same.
 When a body is heated, its molecules move faster about their means
position and kinetic energy (KE) increases and with fall in temperature
their kinetic energy (KE) decreases and motion of the molecules
decreases.
 SI unit of heat is Joules (J). Another unit of heat is calories.

EFFECTS OF HEAT
 EFFECTS OF HEAT

Change in the Change in the state of Change in the size of

temperature of the the body the body
body

1. Change in the temperature of the body

 Temperature of the body is directly proportional to the heat in the body.
 The change of temperature of the body depends on the following two
factors:
a. Quantity of heat imparted to (or released/rejected from) the body: Heat
imparted increases the KE of the molecules and vice versa.
b. Material of the body: Specific heat capacity of a body is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass by unit rise
in temperature. Different bodies have different specific heat capacities
depending on their specific heat capacities.
 2. Change in the state of the body
 There are three states of matter: Solid, liquid and gas.
 When there is a change from one state of a body to another at constant
temperature, we call it change in the state of the body.

Characteristic/Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Fixed/definite No fixed No fixed shape
shape
Size or volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Arrangement of Closest Closer than Farthest
molecules gas
Inter molecular Minimum More than Maximum
separation (least) solids, less
than gases
Inter molecular force Maximum Less than Least
solid but more
than gas
KE of molecules Minimum More than Maximum
solid, less
than gas

Change of Process Heat Example

state absorbed (+)
or released
(-)
 Solid Melting + Ice cube
Liquid melts into
water
Solid  Gas Sublimation + Burning of
camphor
Liquid  Vaporization/Boiling/Evaporation + Boiling
Gas water at
100oC
Liquid  Freezing - Cooling
Solid water at 0oC
Gas  Solid Solidification/Deposition - Frost
formation
Gas  Condensation - Dew
Liquid formation
Key points to remember
1. Freezing point: It is the temperature at which a liquid freeze and becomes
solid. Different liquids have different freezing points. Examples: freezing
point of water is 0oC or 32oF and for glycerin is 17oC.
2. Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid boils and turns to vapour
or steam. Examples: BP of water is 100 oC and of milk is 95oC.
3. Boiling is a rapid process while evaporation is a slow process, but in both
the cases the body gains heat and changes its state from liquid to
gas/vapours. Examples: Water boils in a utensil when heated but water
evaporates from wet clothes when kept to dry on sunny/dry/windy days.
4. All molecules of the liquid do not take part in evaporation, only those
molecules near the surface of liquid which acquire sufficient KE take part
in the evaporation.
5. Evaporation only takes place from the surface while boiling affects entire
quantity (volume) of the body.

3. Change in the size of the body

 Size of the body is directly proportional to the temperature (heat) of the

body.
 Thus, in general, solids, liquids and gases expand on heating and contract
on cooling.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON MOLECULAR MOTION

 Temperature of a body is directly proportional to the molecular motion in
the body.
 Increase in the temperature of the body increases the molecular motion of
the body as KE of the molecules increases and vice versa.
 Temperature is measured is two most commonly used units: degree
Celsius (oC) and Kelvin (K).
 Molecular motion in a body stops completely at absolute zero kelvin (0
K) temperature (lowest possible temperature).

RELATED QUESTIONS

1. Fill in the blanks

(a) Boiling occurs at ……………..
(b) Heat is ………….. during boiling.
(c) Evaporation takes place at …………….

2. Short/long answer questions

a. What is matter? What is it composed of?
b. Name the three states of matter and distinguish them on the basis of
their (i) volume, and (ii) shape
c. Distinguish between liquid and vapour (or gas) states of matter on the
basis of following factors (i) Arrangement of molecules (ii) Inter-
 molecular separation (iii) Inter-molecular force, and (iv) Kinetic
energy of molecules.
d. Define solidification. State whether heat is released or absorbed by the
body. Also, give an example of solidification.
e. Name any two units for measuring temperature. What happens to the
KE of the molecules of the body at absolute zero kelvin temperature?
f. How do the size of the body changes when its temperature is raised.
Also, name SI unit of heat.

LECTURE – 2

CHANGE OF LIQUID INTO VAPOUR STATE

A liquid changes into vapour in two ways

By evaporation at all temperatures By boiling at a fixed temperature

1. EVAPORATION
 Evaporation is the process that changes liquid water to gaseous water
(water vapour).
 Evaporation takes place at all temperatures.
 No bubbles are formed in case of evaporation unlike boiling.

Explanation of evaporation on the basis of molecular motion

 Molecules of liquid have more spaces, the less molecular force of
attraction and more KE than molecules of solids and can
move throughout the liquid.
 While moving they cannot escape the surface as they are being pulled
inside by other molecules as there are no molecules above the surface.
 But when some molecules acquire sufficient KE, they overcome the
attractive forces of other molecules and escape into the open space above
the liquid.
 These escaping molecules form the vapour of the liquid and the process
called evaporation continues till all the liquid evaporates.

 Effect of temperature on the rate of evaporation: Rate of evaporation is

directly proportional to the increase in the temperature of liquid.
 Effect of blowing air on the rate of evaporation: Rate of evaporation is
directly proportional to the air blowing above the surface of the liquid.
 Effect of increase in area of surface on the rate of evaporation: Rate of
evaporation is directly proportional to the surface area of liquid exposed
to air.
 Effect of presence of humidity on the rate of evaporation: Rate of
evaporation is inversely proportional to the humidity present in air.
 Cooling produced during evaporation: When a liquid evaporated, it
produces a cooling effect in its surrounding as the leaving molecules take
the heat with them. Example: When we kept water on the earthen pot
 (matka), the water molecules evaporate from the several tiny pores of the
pot.

 During this process, it takes the heat from the water and thus the water
cools down due to the loss of heat.

BOILING
 Boiling is the rapid phase transition from liquid to gas or vapour.
 The boiling point for any material is the temperature point at which the
material transforms into the gas phase in the liquid phase.

Explanation of boiling on the basis of molecular motion

 The kinetic energy of molecules determines the molecular motion.
 On heating, the kinetic energy of molecules of liquid increases.
  After acquiring kinetic energy, these molecules are able to overcome the
attractive force of other molecules. Hence, they start escaping from the
bulk of liquid. This is shown by the appearance of bubbles in liquid.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EVAPORATION AND BOILING

Comparison Base Evaporation Boiling
Temperature Takes place at all Takes place at a fixed
temperatures temperature (BP)
Place of occurrence Occurs only at the Takes place throughout
surface the mass of liquid
Rate of process Slow process Rapid process

RELATED QUESTIONS
1. Write true or false for each statement
a. Evaporation is rapid on a wet day.
b. Evaporation takes place only from the surface of the liquid.
c. All molecules of a liquid take part in the process of evaporation.
d. Temperature of a liquid rises during boiling or vaporisation.
e. All molecules of liquid take part in boiling.
f. Boiling is a rapid phenomenon.

2. Fill in the blanks

a. The molecules of liquid …………….. heat from surroundings in
evaporation.
b. Cooling is produced in ………………...

3. Select the correct alternative

a. In evaporation –
1. all molecules of liquid begin to escape out
2. only the molecules at the surface escape out
3. the temperature of liquid rises by absorbing heat from surroundings.
4. the molecules get attracted within the liquid.
b. The rate of evaporation of a liquid increase when:
1. temperature of liquid falls
2. liquid is poured in a vessel of less surface area
3. air is blown above the surface of liquid
4. humidity increases.
c. During boiling or vaporization –
1. all molecules take part
2. temperature rises
3. no heat is absorbed
4. the average kinetic energy of molecules increases.
d. The boiling point of a liquid is increased by –
1. increasing the volume of liquid
2. increasing the pressure, on liquid
3. adding ice to the liquid
4. decreasing pressure on liquid.

Short/long answer questions

a. What is evaporation? Explain it on the basis of molecular motion.
b. Do all the molecules of a liquid take part in evaporation? If not,
explain your answer.
c. No heat is supplied to a liquid during evaporation. How does then the
liquid change into its vapours?
d. Comment on the statement ‘evaporation is a surface phenomenon’.
e. Why is cooling produced when a liquid evaporates?
f. Give reason for the increase in rate of evaporation of a liquid when (i)
air is blown above the liquid (ii) surface area of liquid is increased (iii)
temperature of liquid is increased.
g. What is boiling? Explain it on the basis of molecular motion?
h. Why does bubbles appear when a liquid is heated?
i. What is the change in average kinetic energy of molecules of a liquid
during boiling at its boiling point?
 j. How is the heat energy supplied to a liquid used during boiling at a
fixed temperature?
k. Name two ways of change of liquid state to the vapour state and
distinguish them.

LECTURE – 3

THEMRAL EXPANSION
 It is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to
temperature alterations.
Thermal expansion in solids
 When solid is heated, it expands in all dimension, thus there is an
increase in length, area and volume.
 The increase in the length of the solid due to heating is called linear
expansion.
 The increase in the area of the solid due to heating is called superficial
expansion.
 The increase in the volume of the solid due to heating is called cubical
expansion.
Explanation of thermal expansion of solids on the basis of molecular motion
 When a substance is heated the average kinetic energy of molecules
increases and they start moving with an increased speed.
 As a result, intermolecular separation between the molecules also
increases.
 Thus, there is an increase in the length area and volume of the substance.

Demonstration of thermal expansion of solids

1. Ball and ring set up to show the thermal expansion in solids
 To be discussed in class.
 2. Bar and gauge experiment to show the thermal expansion in solids
 To be discussed in class.

LINEAR EXPANSION
 Factors affecting linear expansion

Dependence on the Dependence on the

Dependence on
increase in material of the rod
original length
temperature

 Longer the original length of the rod (body), greater will be the linear
expansion of the rod.
 The rod (body) heated more will experience more linear expansion.
 Material of the rod also affects the linear expansion of the rod. For
example, copper rod expands more when heated equally as iron rod of
same length.
 If Lo be the length of the rod at 0oC and its length at toC is Lt, the increase
in length is given as follows (α is called coefficient of linear expansion
which depends on the material of rod, measured in per oC

Lt – Lo = Loαt

Superficial expansion of solids

  It is observed that superficial expansion of solids depends on the following
factors:
(i) The initial area of the plate: Directly proportional to the expansion
(ii) The increase in temperature: Directly proportional to the expansion
(iii) Material of the plate: Depends on the metal. For example, brass plate expands
more than the iron plate for same rise of temperature.
If Ao be the area of plate at 0oC and At be the area of the plate at toC, the increase
in the area is given by
At – Ao = Aoβt
(β is the coefficient of superficial expansion which depends on the material)

Cubical expansions of solids

 It is observed that cubical expansion of solids depends on the following

factors:
(i) Initial volume of solid: Directly proportional to the cubical expansion.
(ii) Rise in temperature: Directly proportional to the cubical expansion.
(iii) Material of solid: Depends on the material, for example, brass ball
increases more in volume than iron ball of same size for same rise in
temperature.
If Vo be the area of plate at 0oC and Vt be the area of the plate at toC, the
increase in the area is given by
Vt – Vo = Voϒt
(ϒ is the coefficient of cubical expansion which depends on the material)
Relationship between α, β and ϒ

α:β:ϒ=1:2:3
Some applications of thermal expansion of solids in daily life
1. Construction of a bridge

 In summer when temperature increases considerably the bridge made of

metal expands and rollers slide to allow for expansion otherwise the bridge
may break the pillar.

2. Railway tracks

 An increase in temperature during the summer days causes expansion in

rails. So, in order to allow expansion at the joints of the rails while laying a
railway track, a small gap is left in between the rails.
 If such a gap is not left at the rail's joints, the track will get deformed due to
thermal expansion.

3. Riveting
 A rivet is a nail or bolt used for holding metal plates together firmly.
 In the construction of ships and boilers, there is a need to fix steel plates
firmly.
 The heated rivet is passed through the holes which are made in the steel
plates (part 1 of the figure above)
 The hot rivet is hammered to fix it firmly (part 2 of the figure above)
 When it is cooled, it contracts and hold the metal plates together more firmly
(part 2 of the figure above).

4. Electric cables and telephone wires

 Solid wires like telephone electrical wires experience expansion and
contraction due to changes in temperature during summer and winter
respectively.
 To avoid breakage or snapping of wires due to contraction in winter, the
wires are let loose between the poles.
5. Fitting the steel rim on a horse cart wheel
 To ensure a tight fit of steel rim over the wooden wheel, the rim is made
slightly smaller in diameter than the wooden wheel.
 Then to fit the rim, it is first heated uniformly along its circumference till
its diameter becomes slightly more than that of the wooden wheel.

6. Glassware used in the kitchen

 Pyrex glass in commonly used in kitchenware because pyrex glass has a
very low coefficient of expansion.
 There it does not crack on heating.

7. Pendulum of a clock is made of invar

 Invar is an alloy which has a small coefficient of linear expansion.

 The length of a pendulum made of invar does not change with
temperature and hence the time period of oscillation remains the same.
 Hence the time shown by the clock is accurate.

8. Loosening a glass stopper or a metal screw cap

 By the thermal expansion, a tight glass stopper from the bottle is

removed. Because the glass expands and contracts due to thermal change.
 When heat is applied to the neck of the bottle that area expands slightly.
This loosens the stopper.
 So, it becomes possible to remove the stopper which is stuck in the neck
of the bottle.

9. Cracking of thick glass tumbler

 When hot water is poured into thick glass tumbler, the inner surface of
the tumbler becomes hot and expands.
 The outer surface of the tumbler does not expand quickly.
 Due to this uneven expansion, the glass tumbler cracks.

RELATED QUESTIONS

1. Write true or false for each statement

(a) All solids expand by the same amount when heated to the same rise in
temperature.
(b) Telephone wires are kept tight between the two poles in winter.
2. Fill in the blanks
(a) A longer rod expands ……….. than a shorter rod on being heated to the
same temperature.
(b) Iron expands less than copper.

3. Select the correct alternative

(a) Two rods A and B of the same metal, but of length 1 m and 2 m
respectively, are heated from 0°C to 100°C. Then –
1. both the rods A and B elongate the same 2. the rod A elongates more than
the rod B 3. the rod B elongates more than the rod A 4. the rod A
elongates, but the rod B contracts.
(b) Two rods A and B of the same metal, same length, but one solid and the
other hollow, are heated to the same rise in temperature. Then –
1. the solid rod A expands more than the hollow rod B 2. the hollow rod B
expands more than the solid rod A 3. the hollow rod B contracts, but the
solid rod A expands 4. both the rods A and B expand the same.
(c) The increase in length of a metal rod depends on –
1. the initial length of the rod only 2. the rise in temperature only 3. the
material of rod only 4. all the above three factors.
(d) The correct statement is:
1. Iron rims are cooled before they are placed on the cart wheels. 2. A glass
stopper gets tighten on warming the neck of the bottle. 3. Telephone
wires sag in winter, but become tight in summer. 4. A little space is left
between two rails on a railway track.

4. Short/Long Answer Questions

a. What do you understand by thermal expansion of a substance?
b. An iron washer is heated. State the effect on its (i) mass, (ii) internal
diameter, (iii) external diameter, and (iv) density.
c. Give two examples of the substances which expand on heating.
d. Describe an experiment to demonstrate the thermal expansion in solids.
e. State three factors on which depend the linear expansion of a metal rod
on heating.
f. Two iron rods – one 10 m long and the other 5 m long, are heated to the
same rise in temperature. Which will expand more?
g. Two identical rods of copper are heated to different temperatures — one
by 5°C and the other by 10°C. Which rod will expand more?
h. One rod of copper and another identical rod of iron are heated to the same
rise in temperature. Which rod will expand more? Give reason.
i. Two identical rods—one hollow and the other solid, are heated to the
same rise in temperature. Which will expand more?
j. In the ball and ring experiment, if the ball after heating is left to cool on
the ring for some time, the ball again passes through the ring. Explain the
reason.
k. Explain the following: (a) The telephone wires break in winter. (b) Iron
rims are heated before they are fixed on the wooden wheels. (c) The gaps
are left between the successive rails on a railway track. (d) A glass
stopper stuck in the neck of a bottle can be removed by pouring hot water
on the neck of the bottle. (e) A cement floor is laid in small pieces with
gaps in between.
 l. Why is one end of a steel girder in a bridge kept on rollers instead of
fixing it in pillar?
m. A metal plate is heated. State three factors on which the increase in its
area will depend.
n. A cubical metal solid block is heated. How will its volume change?

LECTURE – 4

THERMAL EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS

Exception: In general, objects will expand with increasing temperature. Water is
the most important exception to this rule. Water expands with increasing
temperature (its density decreases) when it is at temperatures greater than 4ºC.
Experiment to demonstrate cubical expansion of liquid
  To be discussed in class.
Explanation of thermal expansion of liquid by molecular motion
 In liquid, the molecules are free to move and when they are heated, their
KE increases as a result intermolecular separation increases leading to
expansion of liquids.
Factors affecting the cubical expansion of a liquid
1. Original volume of the liquid: Directly proportional to the cubical
expansion.
2. Rise in temperature: Directly proportional to the cubical expansion.
3. Nature of liquid: Depends on the molecules of liquid. Thus, different
liquids have different cubical expansion. Example: Benzene expands
more than kerosene, which expands more than alcohol which in turn
expands more than water (water expands least out of all these liquids).
Water also does not have a fixed cubical expansion, its value varies with
rise in temperature.
Application of thermal expansion of liquids in daily life
1. The bulb of the thermometer is filled filed mercury because it is a shiny
liquid (easy to see) and mercury rises quickly with rise in temperature.
Similarly, alcohol is also quite often used in some thermometers.
2. Medicines bottles are left out with some space at the top so that the
medicine does not spill off after expansion.

THERMAL EXPANSION IN GASES

 Gases expand more than liquids and solids and since they do not have a
definite shape, so they only have cubical expansion.
Explanation of thermal expansion in gases by the molecular motion
 On heating average KE of molecules increases and since gases already
have large intermolecular spaces, heated molecules begin to move
violently. Thus, gases expand largely.
VARIATION OF DENSITY WITH TEMPERATURE

 The relation between density and temperature for liquids and gases
is inversely proportional. Change in density will be reflected in a change
in temperature and vice-versa.
 On the other hand, in case of solids, there isn’t large expansion in volume
on heating, thus effect on density is not that appreciable.
 Exception: The anomalous expansion of water is an abnormal property
of water whereby it expands instead of contracting when the temperature
goes from 4oC to 0oC and it becomes less dense. Thus, water has
maximum density (= 1000 kg/m3) at 4oC.

RELATED QUESTIONS
1. Write true or false for each statement
a. Equal volumes of different liquids expand by the different amount
when they are heated to the same rise in temperature.
b. A mercury thermometer makes use of the property of expansion of
liquids on heating.
c. Kerosene contracts on heating.
d. Solids expand the least and gases expand the most on being heated.

2. Fill in the blanks

a. Alcohol expands ……….. than water.
b. Liquids expand ………… than the solids.
c. Gases expand ……….. than the liquids.

3. Short/Long Answer Questions

a. Describe an experiment to show that liquids expand on heating.
b. State one application of thermal expansion of liquids.
c. 100 ml of each of the following liquid is heated from 10°C to 50°C.
Which will expand more: (i) water (ii) benzene (iii) alcohol?
d. Water is heated from 0°C to 4°C. Will it expand?
e. What do you mean by anomalous behaviour of water?
f. How does the density of a substance (solid, liquid and gas) change on
heating?
g. Describe an experiment to show that air expands on heating.
h. An empty glass bottle is fitted with a narrow tube at its mouth. The open
end of the tube is kept in a beaker containing water. When the bottle is
heated, bubbles of air are seen escaping into water. Explain the reason.
i. Which of the following will expand more, when heated to the same
temperature: (i) solid (ii) liquid and (iii) gas?
j. Describe an experiment to show that same volume of different liquids
heated to same rise in temperature expand by different amounts.