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ML12146A177
ML12146A177
Student Manual
Volume 1
Chapter 5.0
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Learning Objectives
5.1 History…………………………………………………………………………………………1
5.3 Principles………………………………………………………………………………………3
5.5 Technique…………………………………………………………………………………….22
6.4 Training………………………………………………………………………….35
LIST OF TABLES
5-1 Half Value Layer (HVL) and Tenth Value Layer (TVL) Tables .................................................. 36
LIST OF FIGURES
energy emitted during the disintegration process Section XI requires that personnel
of certain natural elements such as radium performing NDE be qualified and certified using
(refined from pitch-blend) was indeed identical a written practice prepared in accordance with
to Roentgen's X-rays although Becquerel had ANSI/ANST CP-189 as amended by Section XI.
given them the name of gamma after the third IWA 2314 states that the possession of an ASNT
letter in the Greek alphabet. Level III Certificate, which is required by
CP-189, is not required by Section XI. Section
5.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification XI also states that certifications to SNT-TC-1A
or earlier editions of CP-189 will remain valid
Of all the NDE methods except VT, RT has until recertification at which time CP-189 (1995
been a requirement in the ASME Code the Edition) must be met.
longest. The development and application of
the most effective technique for a given A Level II Radiographic examiner, who is a
application, requires that the RT examiners are high school graduate, must complete one of the
highly qualified. The interpretation of the following for Section V and only the CP-189
radiographs, considered to be highly subjective, requirements for Section XI.
requires skills and experience in order that
discontinuities are observed, then properly SNT-TC-1A stipulates the following for RT
dispositioned. The quality of the radiographic examination personnel:
technique must also be assessed by the
interpreter. RT personnel, whether they are
Training Experience
taking the radiographs or interpreting them, must
be qualified and certified. Level I 40 hours 210 hrs*/400hrs**
requirements for Level III. Refer to materials. The penetrating power of the X-ray
Chapter 2 of this manual for Level III beam can be increased or decreased to examine
requirements. different materials by changing the applied volt-
age. The amount of X-rays reaching the object
The CP-189 requirements as required by Section can also be controlled. While passing through an
XI are: object, some of the radiation is also absorbed and
scattered. The amount of absorption that occurs
depends on the thickness and densityof the
Training Experience
material; therefore, the intensity of the radiation
Level I 40 hours 200*/600** emerging from the material varies accordingly.
The emergent radiation causes an invisible
Level II 40 hours 600*/1200**
change to the emulsion of the film. By
*Hours in RT subsequent development, the affected silver
** Total Hours in NDE halides are converted to black metallic silver.
After development, the unaffected silver halides
NOTES: are removed by “fixing” and thus an image of the
object is produced. The film is then washed and
1. Experience is based on the actual hours dried and is ready for viewing.
worked in the specific method.
2. A person may be qualified directly to Because of the penetration and absorption
NDT Level II with no time as certified capabilities of X and gamma radiation, radiogra-
Level I providing the required training phy is used to examine a variety of products such
and experience consists of the sum of the as welds, castings, forgings, and various fabri-
hours required for NDT Levels I and II. cated parts. Radiography is one of the primary
3. The required minimum experience must NDE methods in use today. It requires exposing
be documented by method and by hour film to X or gamma rays that have penetrated a
with supervisor or NDT Level III specimen, then processing the exposed film, and
approval. subsequently interpreting the resultant
While fulfilling total NDT radiograph. Other recording media may also be
experience requirement, experience may used.
be gained in more than one (1) method.
Minimum experience hours must be met The most important difference between light
for each Method. rays and X and gamma rays is their penetrating
ability. Visible light is stopped by opaque sub-
5.3 Principles stances. However, because X-rays have such a
high frequency and short wavelength, they are
Radiography relies on the fact that X and able to penetrate opaque objects and expose
gamma rays possess the capability of penetrating radiographic film. The depth of penetration
depends upon the type of material density, its tube and gamma rays come from a radioactive
thickness, and the energy of the radiation. isotope.
When the radiation penetrates the film, it The number of protons present in an atom
ionizes the tiny silver grains in the film emulsion. determines the element.
The ionization of the film’s emulsion forms a
“latent (or invisible) image”, which is developed Over 100 different kinds of atoms exist and
during later processing of the film. they are called elements. Oxygen, copper, and
lead are some common elements. Elements or
The specimen itself is an important combinations of elements (molecules) form all
consideration in making a radiograph. Enough the things we see in everyday living. For
radiation must penetrate the object to form an examples there are billions of atoms in the tip of
image. Too much radiation overexposes the a pencil, with over 99.99 percent of each atom
film. “Absorption” is the ability of the being empty space.
specimen to block the passage of X-rays through
the material. When the film is developed, the 5.3.1.1 Atomic Weight
exposed portion on the film turns dark while the
unexposed portion is clear or light. The protons and neutrons are packed together
in the center of the atom. This forms the nucleus
The two sources of radiation used in and is referred to as the atomic weight of the
radiography are gamma rays and X-rays. atom. For example, the helium atom has two
Gamma and X-rays are exactly the same kind of protons and two neutrons in the nucleus. The
radiation, except that X-rays come from an X-ray neutrons are neutral so this gives the nucleus a +2
electrical charge. To be stable, the atom must be concerned, can hold a maximum of eight
electrically balanced; therefore, two electrons electrons. As the elements change in mass so do
with negative charges orbit the nucleus. the number of shells, which continue through M,
N, and so on until the final, O shell of the
Isotopes of basic elements are identified by heaviest elements (Figure 5-2).
their weight. The mass number or “A” number is
a combination of protons and neutrons (heavy 5.3.2 Radiation Theory
part of the atom). Each isotope is then assigned
a weight equal to the total weight of protons and X and gamma rays are in the electromagnetic
neutrons in the nucleus. family of radiation. The electromagnetic
spectrum is arranged in order by energy and
5.3.1.2 Atomic Number frequency of the wave. The waves with the
lowest energy and frequency are listed at the left
Atomic numbers or “Z” numbers are the end of the chart illustrated in Figure 5-1, while
number of protons in the nucleus of the atom and the waves with the highest energy are at the right.
determine the type of element. For example, an Higher energy and frequency produces shorter
atom of beryllium with four protons would have wavelengths and higher frequency.
a “Z” number of 4. No other element would
have a “Z” number of 4. 5.3.2.1 Radiation Characteristics
An atom of hydrogen, the simplest of all Radiation is part of our daily lives, and it is
atoms, has a nucleus containing one proton with constantly present in very small amounts. The
one orbiting electron. This hydrogen atom has main source of radiation is the sun. Fortunately
the only nucleus that does not contain neutrons. the atmosphere surrounding the earth is an ab-
sorber. However, the higher elevations receive
An atom of oxygen has eight protons and more radiation than lower regions since they are
eight neutrons in the nucleus with eight orbiting closer to the source - the sun. There are other
electrons. sources of radiation that cause slight exposure to
humans. For example, certain rocks, such as
5.3.1.3 Electron Configuration granite and some minerals, will give off low
levels of radiation.
The electrons orbit the nucleus in particular
paths known as shells. The different orbits have In order to understand how radiographs are
different energy levels and are given a letter to made, it may be well to consider the major
identify each shell. The innermost shell is characteristics of radiation. The major sources
called the K shell. It can hold a maximum of of the radiation used to produce radiographs are
two electrons. The next shell is called the L X-ray machines and radioactive isotopes. There
shell and, depending upon the element is no difference between X-rays and gamma rays
• They penetrate matter depending on the Example - If one electron were accelerated
radiation energy, material density, and by a potential of a 100 thousand volts (100 kV)
material thickness. machine, the electron would have energy of 100
• They travel in straight lines. thousand electron volts (100 KeV)
• They travel at the velocity of light (186,262
miles per second, 344,472 km/sec). When X-rays are produced, there is a wide
• They cause fluorescence in some materials. range of energies (wavelengths). Not all
• They ionize matter and they expose film by electrons are accelerated to the maximum
ionization. voltage set on the X-ray machine. However,
every gamma producing isotope emits rays of
• They are scattered by a process of
one or more specific energies.
photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and
pair production.
The greatest density difference or contrast in
• Their energy is inversely proportional to their
the radiograph, corresponding to a change of
wavelength.
section thickness in an object, is obtained when
• They are invisible and undetectable by
the lowest practical energy is used. When a
human senses.
change in energy is made, two factors have an
• They are not particulate.
affect on the X-ray film. First, the quality of
• They have no electrical charge.
radiation is changed; harder, more penetrating
• They have no rest mass or weight. X-rays are produced if energy is increased, or
softer radiation is produced when it is reduced.
Source selection involves several consider- Second, for fixed milliamperage (mA), an
ations. Generally, the material type and thickness increase in kV produces an increase in intensity,
determine the radiation energy range to be used. or more radiation, and, conversely, a decrease in
The radiation energy relates to the thickness of a intensity, when the kV is reduced.
given material that can be penetrated within a
reasonable time. The radiation source also must 5.3.2.2 Interaction with Matter
produce the needed radiographic definition and
contrast to produce an image with acceptable X or gamma rays penetrate light materials
sensitivity. The energy of X-rays and gamma better than they penetrate dense materials. The
rays is expressed in: heavier, denser materials offer greater resistance
• Thousand (Kilo) electron volts (KeV) and to X or gamma ray penetration. X or gamma
• Million (Mega) electron volts (MeV). rays (or photons) are little packets of energy
moving at the speed of light. The photons’ involves complete absorption of the photon.
energy does not just disappear; it has to be Part of the energy is expended in ejecting the
transformed in a process known as “ionization”. electron from its orbit, and the remainder imparts
One of the basic laws of nature is that energy can velocity to the electron. Remember that a photon
neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be is not a particle although it may act like one.
converted into different forms. When the photon’s energy is used, there is
nothing left.
An “ion” is a charged atom, group of atoms,
or atomic particle with either a positive or Compton Effect - The Compton Effect is a
negative charge. Removing an electron from an logical extension of the photoelectric effect
atom creates a position ion with a “plus one” except that the photon energies are usually
charge. Ions are produced when a photon (X or higher (300 KeV to 3.0 MeV) (Figure 5-4). In
gamma ray) collides with an electron in the the Compton Effect all of the photon’s energy
penetrated material. The photon ejects the cannot be absorbed in removing the electron, and
electron from its orbit and transfers some of its there is energy left over. The excess energy
energy to the electron. This process is called takes the form of a new photon that has a longer
ionization and creates a positive or a negative ion wavelength. The new photon moves off in a new
depending on the net electrical charge of the ion. path.
Free electrons produced by ionization absorb Pair Production - In pair production at still
some of the energy from the photon and move higher energy levels, above 1.02 MeV, the
with different velocities in different directions. photon is absorbed by the nucleus of an atom and
changes from a photon to an electron-positron
Since X-rays are generated whenever free pair (Figure 5-5). These particles annihilate
electrons collide with matter, it follows that low each other and their energy is converted to a pair
energy “secondary” or scattered radiation will be of photons. The energy level of each half of the
produced. pair is equal to 0 .51 MeV.
Absorption and scatter take place in three High Speed Electrons - What happens to the
ways: high speed electrons produced in the Compton
and photoelectric effect? The kinetic energy
Photoelectric Effect - The photoelectric (energy of motion) of these high speed electrons
effect (Figure 5-3) occurs primarily with low is absorbed in two ways:
energy photons (10 KeV to 500 KeV). In the
photoelectric effect, the electron absorbs all of 1. Additional ions are created simply by an
the photon’s energy. The photon is weakened in electron colliding with another electron. The
this process as some of its energy is absorbed in electron that is struck is knocked out of orbit,
removing an electron. The photoelectric effect but has taken some of the energy of the first
electron. This process continues until there Value Layer” (HVL). Since one HVL reduces
is very little energy in any one electron. the intensity by a factor of ½, two HVLs will
This low energy is then given off as reduce the intensity by ½ x ½ or ¼, so the
ultraviolet rays, light, or heat. absorption is an exponential function (Figure
5-7).
2. The Bremsstrahlung process (Figure 5-6)
slows down the high speed electron due to Sometimes it is necessary to know how much
the positive field of the atomic nucleus. shielding is required in order to reduce a
particular level of radiation to an acceptable
The energy that is absorbed by the nucleus is level. This may be achieved by calculating the
in excess to the atom’s need, and this energy is number of HVLs required of a particular material
immediately radiated as an X-ray of equal or (lead, concrete, brick etc.) and multiplying this
lower energy. If the electron were completely number by the thickness of material that
stopped, the X-ray emitted will have an energy constitutes one HVL. The formula for
equal to the total kinetic energy of the electron. calculating the number of HVLs is given as:
The Bremsstrahlung process can cause other No. of HVL’s = (Log I0/It) / Log 2
(low energy) X-rays which in turn can cause Where;
additional Compton and photoelectric effects. I0 =Intensity of incident radiation (R/hr)
This scattered (secondary) radiation is an It = Intensity of maximum permissible
important concern in radiograph. level (R/hr)
Half Value Layer - Due to the absorption, Table 5-1 lists the HVLs (and Tenth Value
there will be a relationship between the amount Layers) for several common materials.
of radiation incident upon a material and the
amount of radiation passing out of the material Through an understanding of the HVL,
(transmitted). This relationship of incident to safety shielding requirements of transmitted
transmitted radiation will depend upon such radiation through a wall can be calculated.
factors as:
Tenth Value Layer - The tenth value layer is
• The wavelength (penetrating power) of the the thickness of a material that reduces the
radiation, intensity of radiation by 90 percent.
• Type of absorbing material (density, grain
structure, etc.), and Reduction Factor - The concept of a reduc-
• Thickness of the material. tion factor is useful in computing the amount of
The thickness of a material that reduces the shielding needed. The reduction factor is the
intensity of transmitted radiation to half the intensity of gamma radiation reaching a point at
incident radiation intensity is known as the “Half some distance from a source with no shield,
divided by the intensity reaching the same point
Technically defined, the Roentgen is the Specific Activity - Specific activity of any
quantity of ionizing radiation that produces radioactive source is activity in curies per gram.
2,083 million ion pairs (or one electrostatic unit
of charge) in one cubic centimeter of air at Example: If 4 grams of Cobalt 60 has an
standard temperature and pressure. This unit is activity of 100 curies, then the specific activity
also defined in the SI system as Coulombs/Kg. would be 25 Curies per gram.
1 R = 2.58x10-4 C/kg.
Half-life - Definitions of three types of
The “milliroentgen” is often used as a mea- half-life:
surement of personnel exposure and is
abbreviated “mR” (“m” for milli and “R” for “Radioactive half-life”-This is the time it
Roentgen). One mR is 1/1000 of a Roentgen takes for one-half of the radioactive atoms to
(0.001 Roentgen). (1mR=0.01 mSv/hr) decay or disintegrate.
“Biological half-life” - This is the time it In an electrically neutral atom, the number of
takes one-half of the radioactive material to be protons in the nucleus equals the number of
passed from the body as waste. electrons in orbit around it. An element owes its
unique chemical characteristics to the number of
“Effective half-life” - This is a combination protons or Atomic Number, as previously dis-
of the above two. It is the time needed to lose cussed.
one-half of the radioactive threat by a
combination of biological elimination and If the number of protons in the nucleus is
radioactive decay. altered (and hence the number of electrons), the
element will be changed chemically and become
5.3.3 Radioactive Isotopes another element. However, if the number of
neutrons in the nucleus is altered, no chemical
The two radioactive isotopes primarily used change takes place, and the element retains the
as sources of gamma rays in RT are: same chemical characteristics. The only change
• Cobalt 60 and that takes place will be in the element's mass.
• Iridium 192. Elements with the same number of protons but
with a different number of neutrons are called
Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic isotopes.
half-life, which is the time it takes for the source
to decay or disintegrate to one half of its original A particular element can have several iso-
activity (G Becquerel or Curies). The half-lives topes; some of these are stable and will continue
of some common radioisotopes are as follows: to exist in a neutron rich or neutron deficient
state.
Isotope ............................................................................................................ Half-live
Radium 226 (Ra-226) 1620 years Some elements, however, have isotopes that
Cesium 137 (Cs-137) 30 years are unstable. In this case the isotope will not
Cobalt 60 (Co-60) 5.3 years continue to exist in its neutron rich or neutron
Thulium 170 (Tm-170) 130 days deficient state but will try to return to a more
Iridium 192 (Ir-192) 74 days stable condition. These isotopes are called
radioisotopes, or radioactive isotopes.
The penetration of gamma rays, which is
comparable to X-rays of 500 to 2000 kV is The process of a radioisotope returning to a
particularly valuable where the thickness or stable condition is known as “disintegration”.
density of the specimen is beyond the range of This does not mean the nucleus will be
X-ray equipment generally available. destroyed, only that a particle is either ejected or
captured by the nucleus in order to stabilize it.
5.3.3.1 Characteristics of an Isotope
With the heavier atoms, the nucleus may the balance of the nucleus, the isotope is unstable
reject an alpha particle consisting of two protons (or radioactive) and the atoms disintegrate or
and two neutrons (identical to a helium nucleus) decay into a more stable form. Radioactive atoms
and so it becomes an alpha emitter. In many disintegrate or decay by the emission of
others a beta particle consisting of an electron or radioactive particles and/or photons (gamma
a positron may be ejected, and it becomes a beta rays).
emitter. While in others an orbital electron may
be captured into the nucleus (so called “K” When Iridium 191 (A#) is placed in a reactor
capture), resulting in the formation of an and bombarded with neutrons, some of the atoms
additional neutron. of Ir. 191 absorb one neutron into their nucleus
creating the radioisotope Ir. 192. Following
In many instances these disintegrations are irradiation, the isotope disintegrates in an
accompanied by the emission of intense energy attempt to return to Ir. 191. The disintegration
from the nucleus in the form of gamma radiation. is by beta emission and “K” capture. This
This is due to the binding forces (energy) in the results in the emission of 20 discrete energy
nucleus being released as the nucleus reverts to a levels of gamma radiation.
more established state.
5.3.3.3 Radioactive Decay
Whereas the X-ray spectrum is continuous,
gamma ray spectrum is a line. The main energy The activity or strength of radioactive
levels for Ir. 192 are shown in Figure 5-8. material is expressed by the unit “Curie.” The
SI unit is “Becquerel”. When a radioactive
5.3.3.2 Production of Radioactive Isotopes material has an activity of one Curie, it decays or
disintegrates at a rate of 3.7 x 1010 (37 billion)
Although many isotopes of various elements times per second (1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration
occur in nature, artificial isotopes are very com- per second).
mon. Artificial isotopes are created by bombard-
ing a stable element with neutrons. This is done The quantity of radioactive material decaying
in a nuclear reactor where the atomic fission in a given time is directly proportional to the
process emits large numbers of free neutrons. As quantity present. It is therefore impossible to
a result of being exposed to neutron radiation, give the period that will be required for the
elements absorb some of these neutrons, which complete decay of a radioactive-element, as
increases the element’s “A” number or mass. theoretically this is an infinite time. In referring
to radioactive decay, therefore, the period of time
When these additional, absorbed neutrons do in which half the radioactivity is lost is taken as
not upset the proton-to-neutron ratio of the nu- the unit of measure. The curve in Figure 5-9
cleus, the new isotope is said to be “stable”. shows the decrease in radioactivity of Iridium
When these additional, absorbed neutrons upset 192. This graph illustrates that the half life of Ir.
X-rays are generated when high speed, free Continuous X-rays - This range of wave-
electrons release some of their energy during lengths also occurs when a constant potential
interaction with either the nucleus or orbital type circuit is used. In a constant potential
electrons of the target atom. As the velocity of circuit the incoming alternating current is
the free electrons increase, the energy of the rectified and smoothed as much as possible.
x-rays produced will increase.
X-rays are produced when the high speed
A heated wire filament usually serves as the electrons collide with the atoms of the target
source of the electrons. A current is applied to material. They may hit the nucleus head on, hit
this tungsten wire filament that begins to emit the orbiting electrons head on, or strike several
electrons when its temperature increases. A high orbiting electrons with glancing blows. If the
positive charge on the anode causes these elec- high speed electrons hit the nucleus or the
trons to travel at high speeds. The electrons orbiting electrons head on, they give up all their
interact with a target (usually tungsten) energy as very short wavelength photons. If the
embedded into the anode. All this is contained in high speed electrons strike the orbiting electrons
a tube, consisting of a sealed glass envelope, with glancing blows, they impart some of their
which is evacuated to the highest attainable energy to each collision and emit medium and
vacuum (Figure 5-10). long wavelength photons.
for the penetration of thicker or heavier materials different wavelengths and intensity, which is
(increase in kV gives decrease in wavelength) characteristic of the target materials. These
although for any given specimen, a radiograph peaks are called characteristic radiation peaks.
made with high kV will have a lower contrast The energy release is not useful in the production
than one made at a lower kV. The quality of of radiographs.
radiation is affected by changes in kV because of
the disproportional effect on intensity. 5.3.4.3 Milliampere-Time or Exposure
Characteristic X-rays - If during X-ray With a given energy of X-radiation, the three
production, the high speed electron hits an orbit- factors governing exposures are the mA, time,
ing electron directly, it may give up all its and the source-to-film distance (SFD). Since
energy. Part of that energy is given up in the product of intensity (mA) and time (sec or
knocking an orbiting electron out of its shell. min) determines the amount of radiation striking
This will render the target atom electrically out the part, it is usually combined and expressed as
of balance. mA-time or exposure.
The vacancy is quickly filled, however, by an 5.3.4.4 Effective vs. Actual Focal Spot Size
electron moving from an outer orbit. Since each
shell represents a different energy level, the In order to achieve good definition, it is
movement of an electron from one shell to preferable to have as small a focal spot as
another is always accompanied by a release of possible, but this imposes limitations on the
intense energy of a particular wavelength. rating of the tube. This difficulty is considerably
overcome by using the “Benson” or “line-focus”
For example, if an orbiting electron is principle. The actual focal area on the target may
knocked out of the K shell, an electron will move then be made fairly large while the projected area
from the L shell to fill the vacancy. This leaves is much smaller. When the angle between the
the L shell deficient of an electron. Its place is target face and the tube axis is about 70°, the
filled by an electron moving from the M shell effective area of the focal spot is then only about
and so on, until the atom returns to electrical one third of its actual area (Figure 5-11).
stability.
5.3.5 Geometric Factors
Movement from L to K produces energy of a
different wavelength and intensity than a move- It is the goal of the radiographer to obtain the
ment from M to L, but the wavelengths and best image quality and radiographic sensitivity as
intensities will always be the same for the atoms specified by the applicable codes and standards.
of each particular material. The energy levels of Sensitivity is defined as the ability of the radio-
the K, L, and M shells for tungsten differ from graph to display the smallest change in the
those of copper and therefore produce a series of objects cross section. Radiographic sensitivity is
influenced by two major factors: the unsharpness of a radiograph. The closer the
film is to the specimen, the greater reduction in
• Radiographic definition and the unsharpness. When this dimension is
• Radiographic contrast which is made up of increased, it has the greatest effect on
film contrast and subject contrast. unsharpness compared to the other geometric
factors (Figure 5-13). The film should always
5.3.5.1 Definition be placed in such a manner as to minimize the
distance from the area of interest to the film.
Radiographic definition is the sharpness or Additionally, where practical, the film should be
the line of demarcation between areas of at 90o to the primary beam of radiation.
different densities on a radiograph. If the image
is clear and sharp, the radiograph is said to have Source-to-Object Distance - Unsharpness
good definition. can be reduced when the source-to-object
distance (SOD) is increased. This should be as
Image unsharpness refers to the “fuzzy” great as practical, without unduly increasing the
edges or penumbra that diminish detail sharpness exposure time.
at the edges of the objects. Several factors
cause the unsharpness of radiographic images. Screens - When radiation reaches the film,
Most sources of image unsharpness can be only a very small portion is absorbed. An
controlled to some extent. It is always a effective means of increasing the exposure effect
challenge to the radiographer to minimize image is through the use of radiographic screens.
unsharpness in a radiograph. An image that is These are also called intensifying screens. Lead
unsharp has poor definition. foil on both sides of the film has an intensifying
effect. Lead, upon being excited by radiation,
Source-to-Film Distance--SFD (Figure emits electrons. Electrons expose the film just
5-12) is a primary factor in controlling the as the X or gamma radiation does. In fact, the
unsharpness of a radiograph. SFD, which is electrons are more easily absorbed than the
sometimes referred to as target-to-film distance radiation. Also, fluorescent intensifying
(TFD), source to detector distance (SDD) or screens are occasionally used in radiography, but
focal spot to film distance (FFD) with as a rule are not used with gamma rays. These
relationship to X-ray equipment, is usually screens consist of a smooth layer of powdered
specified in codes specifications. If the SFD, fluorescent chemicals coated on a piece of
TFD, or FFD is not specified, the radiographer cardboard or plastic. Such screens may lower
must determine the appropriate distance to meet the exposure needed to produce satisfactory
the applicable quality level. radiographs by a factor of more than 100.
the interaction of the photons ( X and gamma to the unaided human eye.
rays) with the test object. As it scatters, the
radiation loses some of its energy, therefore The amount of sharpness (Ug) is determined
increasing its wavelength and it usually changes by the following equation:
direction. A second type of scatter, side scatter,
originates from radiation reflecting off walls and Ug = Fd/D
other objects nearby that are in the region of the Where:
primary radiation beam. The third type of D = Source-to-object distance,
scatter, backscatter, is caused by radiation F = Effective focal spot or source size
reflecting off objects located behind the object (maximum projected dimension)
and film. Backscatter can be identified by And;
placing a lead letter “B” on the back side of the d = Distance from the source side of the
cassette. If a light image of the “B” appears on a object to the film (the specimen thickness
dark background on the processed radiograph, when the film is in contact with specimen).
this indicates that backscatter is present and
excessive. A dark image of the “B” is In order to achieve optimum sharpness or
acceptable on the radiograph. definition, the following conditions should
occur:
Unsharpness - Some sources of unsharpness
(such as inherent graininess and internal • The radiation source is small.
scattered radiation within a specimen) are • The distance from the source to the specimen
impractical to control. However, routine is as far as practical.
techniques involve factors that must be • The distance from the specimen to film is as
considered to control unsharpness. Unsharpness close as possible.
is influenced by several geometric factors.
Whenever possible, the rays from the
A major factor of geometric unsharpness radiation source should be directed
relates to the size of the radiographic source or perpendicularly to the plane of the specimen and
focal spot. When the source or focal spot is not a film to prevent a distorted image, as illustrated in
point but a small area, the image cast is not Figure 5-15.
perfectly sharp. The unsharpness cannot be
completely eliminated because a “point” source 5.3.5.2 Contrast
cannot be obtained (Figure 5-14).
Radiographic contrast is a comparison be-
It has been determined that 0.020-inch (0.5 tween film densities on different areas of the
mm) penumbra still appears sharp to the human radiograph. Radiographic contrast combines
eye. Therefore, any unsharpness over 0.020 inch subject contrast and film contrast.
(0.5 mm) will start to appear “fuzzy” or unsharp
The first two ways are considered thickness of the specimen. Follow the chart
unscientific, but in the hands of an experienced vertically to the selected kV. Then move
technician they may be necessary, especially horizontally to the correct exposure.
when developing techniques for unusual parts.
The third has the advantage that often “first Example: 1 inch of steel at 180 kV would
time” acceptable results can be achieved simply require about 4,000 mA. At a tube current of 10
by applying the information from the exposure mA, the exposure time would be 400 seconds or
chart. 6 minutes and 40 seconds.
An exposure chart for X-rays is in the form of Gamma radiography also uses charts to
a graph relating exposure time to material thick- determine the exposure factor. The gamma ray
ness. Therefore, it is necessary to “fix” as many exposure chart is simpler than the X-ray chart
conditions as possible. These conditions listed since the gamma source is a fixed energy.
below, should be noted on the finished chart so
that it is possible to follow the correct conditions Figure 5-17 illustrates a sample exposure
for its use. chart for Ir-192. The exposure factor for a
gamma ray source is defined in terms of the
Fixed Conditions: intensity of the source (curies), the time of
• X-ray equipment; exposure (minutes), and square of the
• The specimen material; source-to-film distance (feet2).
• The type of film used;
• The type of screens used, if applicable; Exposure Factor = (Ci x T)/ D2
• The processing details (developer, time,
temperatures etc.); 5.3.6.1 Inverse Square Law
• The source (or target) to film distance;
The intensity of radiation is inversely
• The type of filtration used, if applicable; and
proportional to the square of the distance from
the radiation source, conforming to the “Inverse
• The film density to be achieved.
Square Law”, and may be stated as:
an anode and a cathode. The anode usually target. This has the added advantage of having a
consists of a solid block of copper, with its high melting point and is therefore, not affected
forming an angle of about 70° to the tube axis. greatly by the heat generated.
A thin disc of tungsten is inserted into the anode
face to form the target. A filament is mounted The heat liberated by electron bombardment
in the end of the cathode facing the target. Any is dissipated by the copper anode into which the
increase in current heats the filament increasing target material is mounted. This in turn may be
the number of electrons liberated. cooled by the circulation of oil or water through
its interior.
By applying a high potential across the tube,
it is possible to accelerate a beam of electrons Limitations are imposed upon the electrical
from the cathode to the target. The actual area rating of the tube both by the efficiency of the
on which they impinge is termed the “focal heat dissipation and by the size of the focal point.
spot”. The size of this focal spot will depend on There is therefore a maximum value of tube
the shape of the filament and the form of the current for the continuous operation of any one
focusing cup in which it is mounted. X-ray unit. If very short exposure times are
used, then a higher maximum tube current can be
The flow of electrons from cathode to anode used, as there is time for the target to cool
constitutes the “tube current” which in most between exposures. The maximum available
industrial X-ray equipment is very small, being “time on” period to “time off” period for any
measured in milliamperes. Thus the tube X-ray set is known as the duty cycle.
current can be controlled by means of a simple
resistance or choke in the filament circuit. 5.4.2 Isotope Exposure Devices
The speed at which the electrons travel from Since there are many different types of
the cathode to the anode is controlled by the radioisotope cameras and related equipment, it is
voltage applied across the tube. The voltage beyond the scope of this chapter to describe them
required to make the electrons travel at sufficient all. Figure 5-20 is an example of camera and
speed to produce X-rays useful for radiography accessories. Nevertheless, proper operating
is very high and is measured in kilovolts. instructions and emergency procedures should be
written by any company using a radioisotope and
When the electrons are brought to an abrupt a fully qualified Radiation Safety Officer (RSO)
halt or slowed down by the target, a small should be responsible for safe operation. The
amount of their kinetic energy, (2 to 3 percent) is name of the RSO should be displayed in a
released as X-rays. Most remaining kinetic prominent place so that all personnel will know
energy is converted to heat. The efficiency of who to contact (and how) should any advice be
this process is increased by using an element of required.
high atomic number, such as tungsten, for the
image produced by the radiation is made visible. on the film from tank to tank, and the rollers at
Three the wash tank exist to remove most of the water,
processing solutions are essential to convert an so that the film is in a damp-dry condition
exposed film into a useful developed radiograph: entering the drying compartment.
developer, fixer, and wash water.
Replenishment of the solutions is done auto-
Automatic processing units are available, if matically and is usually controlled by the
the throughput of film is sufficient to justify such quantity of film being processed.
expensive equipment. When properly maintained
and operated, these units result consistently in With all darkroom activity, cleanliness is of
radiographs of superior quality to those produced the utmost importance, especially with automatic
by manual processing. processors. Regular maintenance following the
manufacturers’ recommendations should be
5.4.4.1 Manual System closely followed.
5.4.4.2 Automatic System For cylinders of large internal diameter the single
wall technique is employed (Figure 5-24).
Automatic processors can produce consistent
quality radiographs in short periods of time (i.e., This technique is suitable for 360°, rod
7 to 14 minutes), as opposed to the usual 1 hour anode, and gamma ray sources where the source
required for manual processing. The shorter is positioned at the center axis of the cylinder.
processing times are due to elevated Films wrapped around outer surfaces are
temperatures, and the solutions used in automatic simultaneously exposed. For flat parts, the
processors are of a different concentration than source is on one side of the part and the film is on
those used for manual processing. the opposite side.
Most processors have a roller type of 5.5.2 Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall
mechanism (Figure 5-23). The stop bath and Viewing
wetting agent tanks are eliminated due to
squeegee rollers at the exit of each tank. The Welds in pipe and tubes 3-1/2 inches and less in
squeegee rollers reduce the retention of solution nominal size (diameter) may be radiographed
• No closer to the X-ray beam axis than the that is radiographically similar to the material
extreme discontinuity expected, being examined and whose thickness is usually a
• So as not to obscure the area of interest, and specified percentage (i.e. 1, 2, or 4 percent) of the
• On shims so that the density through the specimen thickness. Three holes are drilled into
penetrant and shim is similar to area of inter- the IQI with diameters equal to 1, 2, and 4 times
est. the thickness of the IQI.
Figures 5-28 to 5-31 give an extract from ASTM and ASME IQIs have an
ASME Section V, Article 2, which shows exam- identification number that represents the
ples of penetrameter and shim placement. thickness of the penetrameter in thousandths of
an inch. Figure 5-32 shows an IQI that would
5.5.8 Structural Welds be used on a part that is 0.25-inch thick, if the IQI
thickness is based on 2 percent of the specimen
The standard technique for structural welds thickness. The number “5” represents
requires the beam of radiation to be directed to thousandths of an inch; therefore, the actual
the middle of the section under examination and thickness of the IQI is 0.005 inch, which
should be normal to the material surface. represents 2 percent of the 0.250-inch part being
Special examinations for certain discontinuities radiographed. Based on the hole diameter
would best be revealed by a different angle of the perceptible on the radiograph, the radiographic
beam (e.g., lack of fusion). The exposure may quality level and equivalent sensitivity can be
be made with the beam directed along the fusion determined.
face.
5.6.1.2 Wire IQIs
5.6 Radiographic Quality
The wire type image quality indicator
5.6.1 Image Quality Indicators consists of six wires of increasing diameters
mounted in a plastic tab and placed on the
The image quality indicator (IQI), or specimen (see Figure 5-33). The ability to see a
penetrameter, is a device whose image on a specified wire on the radiographic image is an
radiograph is used to establish the radiographic indication that the required sensitivity has been
quality level (sensitivity) of the technique used. met.
It is not intended for use in judging the size or in
establishing acceptance limits of discontinuities. 5.6.1.3 Penetrameter Requirements
The primary goal of the identification is to evaluate the radiographic image, ideal viewing
permit exact locations to be determined from the conditions and suitable equipment are absolutely
radiograph. Actual locations of discontinuities necessary.
must be able to be accurately positioned using
the related location marker’s position. 5.7.1 High Intensity Illuminators
5.7 Film Viewing Considerations A radiograph that meets the density require-
ments of the Code will permit only a small frac-
Viewing conditions are of utmost tion of the incident light to pass through it.
importance. The examination of the finished
radiograph should be done under conditions A film that permits 1 percent of the incident
which afford maximum visibility of detail light to be transmitted will have a density of 2.0.
together with a maximum of comfort and a
minimum of fatigue for the interpreter. Following the same procedure, it can be seen
Subdued lighting in the viewing area is that a film density of 3 permits only 0.1 percent
preferable to total darkness. The room lighting of the incident light to pass through and a density
must be arranged so that there are no reflections of 4.0, a mere 0.01 percent.
from the surface of the film being interpreted.
Adequate table surface must be provided on Typically, radiographic density requirements
either side of the viewer to accommodate film through the area of interest range between 2.0 (1
and to provide a writing surface for recording the percent light transmission) and 4.0 (0.01 percent
interpretation. Quick and easy access to a light transmission). This explains the need for a
densitometer, reference radiographs, applicable high intensity viewing light.
codes, standards, and specifications should also
be provided. In addition, it is important for the There are many types and styles of high
film interpreter to be free of distractions, in order intensity illuminators, although they are
to maintain concentration. generally classified into four groups: spot
viewers, strip film viewers, area viewers, and
If the interpretation of the radiographic combination spot and area viewers.
image is to be meaningful, it is essential that
proper viewing equipment, in good working Spot viewers provide a limited field of
condition, be used. If slight density variations illumination, typically 3 to 4 inches in diameter.
in the radiographs are not observed, rejectable These viewers are usually the most portable and
conditions may go unnoticed. In many cases, least expensive.
various types of discontinuities are barely
distinguishable even with the use of optimized The strip film viewer permits interpretation
techniques and fine-grained film. In order to of film including 3.5 by 17 inches, 4.5 by 17
optimize the interpreter's ability to properly inches, 4 by 10 inches, 5 by 7 inches, and the 35
mm or 70 mm sizes. The viewing area is over the area used for viewing. This is
rectangular and the area of illumination may be accomplished with a diffusing glass, usually
adjusted to conform to the film dimension by positioned between the light source and the
employing metal or cardboard masks. viewing area, or with a white plastic screen at the
front of the viewer.
The area viewers are designed to accommo-
date large films up to 14 by 17 inches. The 5.7.1.3 Intensity Control
illumination is generally provided by fluorescent
lights or a bank of photo-flood bulbs. The fluo- Another essential feature of the illuminator is
rescent light intensity may not have suitable the variable intensity control. This permits
brightness to permit effective examination subdued intensity when viewing lower densities,
through the higher densities and this could result and maximum intensity as required for the high
in a serious limitation. density portions of the radiograph.
Cold Shuts - Cold shuts appear as faint lines Gas Voids - Gas voids appear as large,
or linear areas of varying length due to the inter- rounded, dark indications, normally with smooth
ruption of the metal flow, resulting in partial edges.
freezing. It subsequently forms an oxide
coating on the surface, which prevents fusion as Gas Wormhole - This is a tube-like gas
the incoming molten metal continues to fill the cavity and can appear either as a rounded or an
mold. elongated image, dependent on the angle of
view.
Centerline Shrinkage - The radiographic
appearance is of a continuous, irregular zone Unfused Chaplets - A chaplet is a very thin
usually branching or in the form of a network. metallic support for a core and is generally
melted by, and absorbed within, the molten
Micro Shrinkage - The radiographic metal. When this does not happen, the image of
appearance is a slightly more dense area and will the unmelted chaplet can be easily distinguished
generally look cloudy or mottled. In some as a dark circular image approximately the same
cases, the fine network may occur in layers, diameter as the core support on the radiograph.
which produces dark streaks on the radiograph.
5.9 Code Considerations
Hot Tears - Hot tears appear as dark, ragged,
defined irregular lines and may have a number of In all NDE methods, the Code should be used
branches of varying densities. in the preparation of procedures. Contractual
requirements usually dictate the specific
Inclusions - Indication of irregular shape and requirements that are applicable to a particular
size result from entrapped low or high density component.
material such as slag or sand.
The radiographic interpreter must be capable
Cracks - Cracks normally appear as dark, of interpreting and applying specified acceptance
irregular, intermittent or continuous lines, criteria and be knowledgeable in the technique
usually quite well defined. used to make the exposure and its effects on the
image. To properly determine technique
Gas Porosity - These are very small cavities acceptability, the interpreter should know the
and appear radiographically as small rounded, component or part and understand the
widely distributed, dark images. manufacturing process.
Gas Hole - This is a larger cavity, which Based on this information parameters needed to
appears radiographically as a dark, rounded, determine technique acceptability include:
amorphous silicon layer which has a phosphor field that reaches the array. The linear arrays
layer deposited on the silicon layer. The scan the image one line or a small group of lines
conversion process is not as good as the CCD but at a time. The image is rebuilt in the computer
is capable of a much greater field of view with processor after all the scan lines are received by
this arrangement. The size of the pixel in both the processor.
the selenium and silicon panels is limited by the
use of the thin film transistors and the data and 6.3 ASME Section V Procedural
scan lines required for the operation of circuitry. Requirements
would display 10 line pairs per mm and 2% as 2-2T sensitivity. The images must be stored
contrast sensitivity this would be stated as 2%- in a manner that the original image details cannot
0.10 mm sensitivity. This also equates to a pixel be changed or manipulated. If the original
size of .05 mm. The dynamic range is defined image is manipulated in any manner it must be
by one manufacturer as the wall thickness range saved in a different file name. Each user will
where the thinner wall thickness is measured at possibly have different requirements and the
80% of the maximum gray value of the detector system shall be selected on the user’s needs such
and the thicker wall thickness by a contrast as sensitivity, field of view, and processing
sensitivity of 2%. This percentage value may be parameters.
1% or as defined by the user requirements.
ASME Section V requires the dynamic range
be determined by measuring the density strip on
the Target in Figure VI-A-1 and measure the last
visible step at each end of the step wedge. It
shall be measured to the nearest 0.50 optical
density.
6.4 Training
6.5 Summary
Table 5-1 Half Value Layerr (HVL) and Tenth Value Layer (TVL) Tabless
Figu
ure 5-3 Photoelectric Effect
Fig
gure 5-7 Half Value Layers
Figure 5-8
5 Energy Spectrum for Ir 192
Figu
ure 5-9 Ir 192 Decay Chart
Figu
ure 5-10 Typical X-ray Tube
Figure 5-12
2 Effect of Source-to-Film Distance
Figure 5-13
3 Effect of Object-to-Film Distance
Fig
gure 5-16 Exposure Chart
Figure 5-17 Ex
xposure Chart for Iridium 192 Source
Figure 5-2
22 Manual Film Processing Steps
Figure 5-27
5 Use and Location of Shims
Figu
ure 5-32 ASME/ASTM IQI