Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Q:01: Democratic Government might seem weak but what they have an internal strength

to cope with emergent crises. Elucidate with special reference to the Third French

Republic.

ANS:

“Democracy is the worst Political Setup.

But we do not have an alternate”

(Winston Churchill)

Elaboration:

The pure democracy, definitely poses the strength to survive under hard circumstances.

However, to elucidate the strength of Democracy in context of 3rd Republic of France, one must

highlight the crises under which the 3rd Republic had survived till 1914 (WWI) almost 64 years,

4 times larger of any government after 1791 down fall of old regime.

Outline Line:

 Background.

 Hurdles during emergence of 3rd Republic.

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

o Commune Conflict/Civil War.

o Royalist opposition.

o Constitutional Crises.

 Crises faced by 3rd Republic.

o Boulanger Affair.

o Panama Scandal.

o Dreyfus Case/Court-Martial.

 Democratic Measures to Cope with Crises.

o Re-institution of Dreyfus.

o Counter of Clerical influence and anti-Clerical Legislation.

o Liberty of Unions and Press.

o Financial Reform for industrial development.

Background:

Thanks to the Franco-Prussian war, Prussia under leadership of Bismarck defeated the France

and the napoleon found incapable and republicans seek opportunity to establish 3rd republic.

However, it faced problems before the emergence of republican constitution and internal

problems after the constitution. The occupied forces according to the Frankfurt peace treaty had

to stationed in France till the war indemnity pays off.

The Emerging Hurdles of 3rd Republic:

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

National Assembly selected Thiers as leader. He signed peace treaty of Frankfurt and Franco-

Prussian under condition of, France pays war indemnity, till than the occupied forces station in

France, 2nd France lost the Lorain and Alsace.

Paris Commune Conflict:

The Paris commune did not digest the loss of territories. Denied the leadership of Thiers, formed

and vowed for communes in France with loose Federation. Thiers fought back and captured all

other communes, soon Paris commune was too suppressed but after a “Bloody Week” of fight in

streets of Paris.

Royalist Opposition:

The majority of Assembly was of Royalists. Threatened by Republican views of Thiers they

successfully forced him to resign. Mac-Mohan, a royalist elected as president. He began to

smoothen the way for re-institution of Monarchy but failed due to the division of Monarchist

among supporter of Orleans, Bonaparte and Bourbon.

Republican Constitution:

The division of Monarchists and case of Bourbon white flag’s demand, caused a deadlock for

Monarchy. Fortunately for republicans, they gain the majority in By-Elections and turned the

case in national Assembly. The Now majority of Republicans passed the Republican

Constitution under Royalist President in 1875. However.

The Crises to 3rd Republic:

The republic faced certain internal crises:

1 The Boulanger Affair:

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

A handsome Military General inspired French people with his good oration and slogan of

‘Taking Revenge from Germans’. He elected for ministry and gained the support of Royalist and

Catholics/Clerics but dropped due to his fam, which further increased with fall of Grevy as his

Son-in Law found guilty of selling ‘Legion of Honor’. Boulanger struggled for Assembly and

won constituency after constituency. But soon revealed that he conspired a Coup D’etat against

Republic and his bubble fam bursts and he forced to flee abroad and commits suicide on grave of

his mistress.

2 The Panama Scandal:

It was a Canal building project by the company of France. After the successful sues Canal, this

project starts. However, it proved a blunder and failure and caused many French investors loss of

their wealth. The scandal burst in 1892, It declared that many ministers took bribes and company

went bankrupt. The Republicans lost many electoral to Socialists. However, Republic Survived.

Dreyfus Case:

A was a Jewish army officer in French army. He court-martialed of treason and selling military

secrete of France to Germany. Sentenced for life imprisonment. The catholic and Monarchist

found an opportunity to oppose the republican. Soon it found that the Dreyfus was innocent and

evidence were altered by some other army officers and now this case turned the honor of army.

There began to form two groups, one in support of Dreyfus (Republicans and middle class of

France) and other was comprised of Clerics and Monarchist to oppose Dreyfus.

Republic Cope with Crises:

After all of the above-mentioned crises and problems, Republic survived and successfully

brought them down and made reforms in certain aspects:

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Re-institution of Dreyfus:

A re-trail was opened for Dreyfus case and he found innocent. All the credit goes to head of

military intelligent, Emile Zola and republican president. Dreyfus were re-institute on his post

and promoted.

Military Reforms:

The military was organized on modern pillars. And it made mandatory of five-year military

service for everyone later on reduced to 3 years.

Containing Clerics:

The clerics, one the biggest enemies of Republic were reduced from power by “Law of

Association”. Their monopoly on education eliminated by Waldeck Rousseau and Combes.

Moreover, the republican president Combes abolished the Napoleon Concordat and church was

separated from state 1905.

Social Betterment:

The Republic successfully curbed the social evils. The Republicans, Gambetta and Jules ferry

worked for the child and female labors to enforce safety measures in in mines and factories. The

trade unions were allowed to operate and press freedom were assured under republic such as

Zola published ‘I accuse’

Financial Development:
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

The French republic somehow manage to pay all its war indemnity within two years. Republic

brought financial reforms and colonial policy helped industries to prosper the wealth of country

increased sharply till 1914.

Conclusion:

Democracy is the only setup available for globe to represent the rights of individuals and assure

the liberty, though democracy poses many loopholes, however it poses strength to survive in

hardships and can relatively deals the crises well. In case of 3rd French Republic, the democracy

shows its immunity and coped with all the struggle, during the emergence of Republic and

during the republic and successfully survived till 1914 (WWI).

Evaluation of Paragraph:

Like all sound political conceptions, Fascism is action and it is thought; action in which doctrine

is immanent, Anti-individualistic, the Fascist conception of life stresses the importance of the

State and accepts the individual only in so far as his interests coincide with those of the State, It

is opposed to classical liberalism which arose as a reaction to absolutism and exhausted its

historical function when the State became the expression of the conscience and will of the

people. Liberalism denied the State in the name of the individual; Fascism reasserts The rights of

the State as expressing the real essence of the individual (12). And if liberty is to he the attribute

of living men and not of abstract dummies invented by individualistic liberalism, then Fascism

stands for liberty, and for the only liberty worth having, the liberty of the State and of the

individual within the State (13). The Fascist conception of the State is all embracing; outside of it
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism, is

totalitarian, and the Fascist State - a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values - interprets,

develops, and potentates the whole life of a people

Fascism denies the materialistic conception of happiness as a possibility, and abandons it to the

economists of the mid-eighteenth century. This means that Fascism denies the equation: well-

being = happiness, which sees in men mere animals, content when they can feed and fatten, thus

reducing them to a vegetative existence pure and simple.

No individuals or groups (political parties, cultural associations, economic unions, social classes)

outside the State (15). Fascism is therefore opposed to Socialism to which unity within the State

(which amalgamates classes into a single economic and ethical reality) is unknown, and which

sees in history nothing but the class struggle.

After socialism, Fascism trains its guns on the whole block of democratic ideologies, and rejects

both their premises and their practical applications and implements. Fascism denies that

numbers, as such, can be the determining factor in human society; it denies the right of numbers

to govern by means of periodical consultations; it asserts the irremediable and fertile and

beneficent inequality of men who cannot be leveled by any such mechanical and extrinsic device

as universal suffrage.

Fascism does not, generally speaking, believe in the possibility or utility of perpetual peace. It

therefore discards pacifism as a cloak. renunciation in contradistinction to self-sacrifice. War

alone keys up all human energies to their maximum tension and sets the seal of nobility on those

peoples who have the courage to face it. The State, as conceived and realized by Fascism, is a

spiritual and ethical entity for securing the political, juridical, and economic organization of the
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

nation, an organization which in its origin and growth is a manifestation of the spirit. The State

guarantees the internal and external safety of the country, but it also safeguards and transmits the

spirit of the people, elaborated down the ages in its language, its customs, its faith. The State is

not only the present; it is also the past and above all the future. Transcending the individual's

brief spell of life, the State stands for the immanent conscience of the nation

Q:01: Democratic Government might seem weak but what they have an internal strength

to cope with emergent crises. Elucidate with special reference to the Third French

Republic.
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

ANS:

“Democracy is the worst Political Setup.

But we do not have an alternate”

(Winston Churchill)

Elaboration:

The pure democracy, definitely poses the strength to survive under hard circumstances.

However, to elucidate the strength of Democracy in context of 3rd Republic of France, one must

highlight the crises under which the 3rd Republic had survived till 1914 (WWI) almost 64 years,

4 times larger of any government after 1791 down fall of old regime.

Outline Line:

 Background.

 Hurdles during emergence of 3rd Republic.

o Commune Conflict/Civil War.

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

o Royalist opposition.

o Constitutional Crises.

 Crises faced by 3rd Republic.

o Boulanger Affair.

o Panama Scandal.

o Dreyfus Case/Court-Martial.

 Democratic Measures to Cope with Crises.

o Re-institution of Dreyfus.

o Counter of Clerical influence and anti-Clerical Legislation.

o Liberty of Unions and Press.

o Financial Reform for industrial development.

Background:

Thanks to the Franco-Prussian war, Prussia under leadership of Bismarck defeated the France

and the napoleon found incapable and republicans seek opportunity to establish 3rd republic.

However, it faced problems before the emergence of republican constitution and internal

problems after the constitution. The occupied forces according to the Frankfurt peace treaty had

to stationed in France till the war indemnity pays off.

The Emerging Hurdles of 3rd Republic:

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

National Assembly selected Thiers as leader. He signed peace treaty of Frankfurt and Franco-

Prussian under condition of, France pays war indemnity, till than the occupied forces station in

France, 2nd France lost the Lorain and Alsace.

Paris Commune Conflict:

The Paris commune did not digest the loss of territories. Denied the leadership of Thiers, formed

and vowed for communes in France with loose Federation. Thiers fought back and captured all

other communes, soon Paris commune was too suppressed but after a “Bloody Weak” of fight in

streets of Paris.

Royalist Opposition:

The majority of Assembly was of Royalists. Threatened by Republican views of Thiers they

successfully forced him to resign. Mac-Mohan, a royalist elected as president. He began to

smoothen the way for re-institution of Monarchy but failed due to the division of Monarchist

among supporter of Orleans, Bonaparte and Bourbon.

Republican Constitution:

The division of Monarchists and case of Bourbon white flag’s demand, caused a deadlock for

Monarchy. Fortunately for republicans, they gain the majority in By-Elections and turned the

case in national Assembly. The Now majority of Republicans passed the Republican

Constitution under Royalist President in 1875. However.

The Crises to 3rd Republic:

The republic faced certain internal crises:

1 The Boulanger Affair:

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

A handsome Military General inspired French people with his good oration and slogan of

‘Taking Revenge from Germans’. He elected for ministry and gained the support of Royalist and

Catholics/Clerics but dropped due to his fam, which further increased with fall of Grevy as his

Son-in Law found guilty of selling ‘Legion of Honor’. Boulanger struggled for Assembly and

won constituency after constituency. But soon revealed that he conspired a Coup D’etat against

Republic and his bubble fam bursts and he forced to flee abroad and commits suicide on grave of

his mistress.

2 The Panama Scandal:

It was a Canal building project by the company of France. After the successful sues Canal, this

project starts. However, it proved a blunder and failure and caused many French investors loss of

their wealth. The scandal burst in 1892, It declared that many ministers took bribes and company

went bankrupt. The Republicans lost many electoral to Socialists. However, Republic Survived.

Dreyfus Case:

A was a Jewish army officer in French army. He court-martialed of treason and selling military

secrete of France to Germany. Sentenced for life imprisonment. The catholic and Monarchist

found an opportunity to oppose the republican. Soon it found that the Dreyfus was innocent and

evidence were altered by some other army officers and now this case turned the honor of army.

There began to form two groups, one in support of Dreyfus (Republicans and middle class of

France) and other was comprised of Clerics and Monarchist to oppose Dreyfus.

Republic Cope with Crises:

After all of the above-mentioned crises and problems, Republic survived and successfully

brought them down and made reforms in certain aspects:

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Re-institution of Dreyfus:

A re-trail was opened for Dreyfus case and he found innocent. All the credit goes to head of

military intelligent, Emile Zola and republican president. Dreyfus were re-institute on his post

and promoted.

Military Reforms:

The military was organized on modern pillars. And it made mandatory of five-year military

service for everyone later on reduced to 3 years.

Containing Clerics:

The clerics, one the biggest enemies of Republic were reduced from power by “Law of

Association”. Their monopoly on education eliminated by Waldeck Rousseau and Combes.

Moreover, the republican president Combes abolished the Napoleon Concordat and church was

separated from state 1905.

Social Betterment:

The Republic successfully curbed the social evils. The Republicans, Gambetta and Jules ferry

worked for the child and female labors to enforce safety measures in in mines and factories. The

trade unions were allowed to operate and press freedom were assured under republic such as

Zola published ‘I accuse’

Financial Development:

The French republic somehow manage to pay all its war indemnity within two years. Republic

brought financial reforms and colonial policy helped industries to prosper the wealth of country

increased sharply till 1914

Aamir Rahim History Dep.
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Q:02: Define the term “Eastern Question ” and the motives of England and Russia in it.

Highlight the major events in this regard between 1820 and 1856

Ans:

Eastern Question:

Definition:
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

The Ottoman Empire usually referred as sick-man or old man of Europe. It was a decaying in

19th century. Now the Question was that “Who was going to take over from the Turks, and when,

where and to what extent?”.

The question arose due to the interest of European powers such as:

 Britain.

 Russia

 France

 Austria.

However, the main stakeholders were the Britain and Russia.

Outline:

Russian Relevance to Eastern Question:

There were basically two interests of Russia:

1. The Strategic: Russian Warm water policy through Black Sea into Turkish straits and to

Mediterranean.

2. Emotional linkage: there were close links between Russian and Turkish Christian

subjects. Both shared same orthodox Christianity and Slavic ethnicity.

However, Russian policy varied time to time. Seemingly supporter of ottoman empire and

making it a buffer state to annexation of Ottoman territories.

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

British Relevancy in Eastern Question:

The British Policy also can be determined on two dynamics:

1. Britain supported Ottoman to sustain because of the threat of Russia gets more power and

influence over Mediterranean which was ultimately a threat for British Naval Supremacy.

2. The 2nd was the question of Syria which made easy access of France to Indian affairs of

Britain.

The British interest based on a “counter Russian” approach. Britain in no case wanted Russia and

France to strong-hold their influence on states supposedly form after decay of ottoman empire.

Britain did not want Russian warm water policy to be succeed and France to reach near Indian

Affairs.

Important Episodes (1821-56):

There were three main events occurred:

1. The Greek war of Independence.

2. Syrian Question.

3. Crimean War.

Greek War of Independence:

Although the Greek subjects of ottoman enjoying comparatively good life and freedom of trade

and education and religion. However, the ideas of revolution and nationalism vows them to seek

independence:

Ypsilanti’s Adventure (1820-21):

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

A Greek commander of Tsar’s army, mustered courage to enter in Moldavian region of ottoman

from Russia and planned to further liberate till the Greece. Initially succeeded on many battles

and defeater Ottoman Troops. But lost his support from Tsar after Barbarous massacre. hopeless

Ypsilanti defeated in 1821 and escaped to Austria and imprisoned there.

Revolt In Morea:

The early Peloponnesus, now calls Morea, revolted against Turk army and they conducted a

massacre of Turks, more than 50,000 Turks had been ruthlessly killed. Sultan asked his pasha of

Egypt Mehmet Ali for help after which he promised of giving Morea and some other regions. He

sent troops under his son Ibrahim. The retaliation conducted by Turks was worse than of that.

Russo-Turkish War:

This massacre made Russia furies. Russia intervened and successfully defeated the forces of

Ibrahim and forced to signed treaty of London before but refused by sultan and uncertain battle

of Navarino Bay occurred.

Treaty of Adrianople (1829):

 Greek got its semi-independence position under lordship of Sultan ruled by a hereditary

prince.

 Free-passage of merchant ships in peace time from Turkish straits.

 Russia, a virtual protectorate of Moldovia and Wallachia.

Greek Complete Independence (1832):

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

The above-mentioned semi-independence supervised by Russia threaten the British that Britain

opted that “complete independent Greece would be much more resistant to Russian

interference”.

1832 it was signed by European powers and Sultan a Independent Greece and Otto of Bavaria

Crown Prince.

Syrian Question:

The sultan promised his pasha Mehmet Ali of Egypt for Syria and Morea if Pasha sent troops to

suppress Morea revolt. However, the that was failed and Morea kept by Greece. Now the

Mehmet Ali asked for reward and invaded Syria. Sultan Retaliated but lost and Ibrahim Pasha

son of Mehmet reached near Constantinople.

Treaty of Unkiar: (1833)

1st Mehmet Ali Crises:

Sultan unwilling asked Russia to help. Meanwhile Russian policy toward ottoman was to support

it because of weakness rather she would have deal strong European national states in Balkan.

Russia assured her help and alliance with ottoman with treaty of Unkiar which affirmed.

 The treaty of Adrianople was confirmed.

 Both countries help each other if attacked.

 Ottomans close the Strait during wartime to any other war ships.

The third clause(secret) was a worst nightmare of Britain. Britain seeking opportunity to curtail

this.

2nd Mehmet Ali Crises:

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

After gaining the support of Russia, Sultan attacked Syria but could not succeed. It was a great

opportunity for Britain to intervene revert the treaty of Unkiar. European powers forced Mehmet

Ali to withdrew his forces from Syria and keep Egypt as a separate and Hereditary right of rule.

Strait Convention: (1841)

Russia lost her privileged position over straits. Now the Straits were to be closed to all warships

while the Ottoman Empire was at peace.

The Crimean War: 1854-56

The Crimean war was fought by France Britain, Piedmont and Ottomans against Russia.

Causes:

 Russian Claim to protect all Christians in Ottoman empire

 Napoleon III pursuits of Popularity. And support of Catholics

 Russian over-confidence and claiming the protection of all Christian holy places

including Palestine under Orthodoxy.

 Russian annexation of Moldova and Wallachia.

 British Russophobia.

War Events:

The war events divided into three phases:

 The Danuban Province war: Anglo-French Naval went to Baltic and to Gallipoli.

However, these regions were at any case irrelevant to war. moreover, Russia withdrew

from Moldovia and Wallachia after the threat of Austria.

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

 The Attack on Crimea 1854. For political reasons French and British forces challenged

Russia on Black Sea and attacked Crimea and captured Alma but wasted energy their

instead capturing Sebastopol. However, it was strong fortress of Russia could not fell

easily.

 The last phase was of change in Government in Britain, helped ally forces to improve and

reinforcement of Piedmont changed the fate of war and ally forces succeeded the fort and

Russian agreed for unconditional terms at 1956

Treaty of Paris 1856:

Following terms were agreed after Crimean war in Paris Treaty of 1856:

 Reduction of Russian Influence in eastern Mediterranean.

 Ottoman’s independent and integrity was guaranteed.

 Danube River were internationalized.

 Regulation of Maritime warfare.

Q: Integrative Nationalism and Example of Integrative nationalism:

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Nationalism:

Nationalism can be defined on different dynamics:

Definitions:

“Nationalism is a mindset” but at the same time the it creates a sense of belongingness among

the people.

It also prevails on the basis of cultural, regional and historical similarity among a body or group

of people

Integrative Nationalism:

A form of Nationalism under which a distributed desperate nation integrate into one body or

state is called integrative nationalism

Examples:

 German Unification 1871:

 Italian unification 1870

Integrative Nationalism

The Italian Unification:

The unification of Italy was integrative. Thus, the people of Italy before the unification were

dwelling under the rule of different foreign rulers of Austria and Spaniard Bourbon.

Background:
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

The term Italy used as a regional notion for Italian Peninsula. It was under unified ancient

Roman Empire. However, dis-integrated under different rulers till 19th century.

The fall of Napoleon and arrangement of Congress of Vienna under Metternich divided Italy to

old regimes and divided it into different regions under foreign rules except Sardinia and Pope

was had nothing do with Nationalism and Nation.

Division of Peninsula:

Southern part, Naples and Sicily or kingdom of Sicily under Spanish branch of Bourbon. The

condition of local population under this rule was deplorable and it was despotic Monarch ruling.

The central parts were comprised of Papal States including Rome. The condition in there also

deplorable and suppressive.

The other Central State such as:

 Pharma

 Modena

 Tuscany.

Were under the suzerainty of Conservative Austria. Comparatively good condition over there but

the main grievance over there was the enslavement and rule of foreign Austria. It hurts the

nationalist sentiment of the people of these regions.

North Easter parts, i.e., Lombardy and Venetia were direct control of Austria. No freedom for

people it was suppressive rule of Austria. Once a lady said “My Daughter Sneezes not but prince

Metternich Know of it”

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

The last and North-Western part Kingdom of Sardinia or Piedmont Sardinia under local Italian

ruler of Savoy. Comparatively good in condition and flourishing under the PM Count Cavour.

Nationalism Sparked Integration:

The revolutionary ideas and the idea of Nationalism was honeycombed Italy too. Congress of

Vienna suppressed the sentiment of Nationalism of People in Italy. Soon nationalistic feeling

compelled people to make secrete societies for unification and liberty of foreign rule. Some of

those struggles are as follows:

Carbonari Revolt 1829:

One of the secrete society in Italy to get rid of foreign rule and inspired by nationalism. Revolted

against suppressive rule in Sicily and forced king Ferdinand to give an constitution. On which

king took Oath for constitution but soon repelled after seeking help from Austrian Prince

Metternich who successfully and ruthlessly suppressed the rebels.

Carbonari Revolt in Central Italy:

Following the revolution in France in 1830, people of Central Italy (Parma Modena, Tuscany and

papal states) revolted under influence of Carbonari for separation of foreign rule and

constitution. But as usual the conservative Austria sent help and suppressed the revolt but this

time France also sent troop to help Pop.

Movements in 1848:

Mazzini (Young Italy)

Mazzini, a nationalist and supporter of Italian unification, however He wanted to integrate Italy

under Republican Values. A formed society Young Italy, more popular than Carbonari.
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Revolted in Sicily and demanded for constitution and succeeded for short time and this fire

reached to Rome and Rome became republic under Mazzini.

Role of Sardinia 1848-49:

The people of Lombardy and Venetia revolted against Metternich’s Austria and successfully

forced Metternich to escape. Lombardy rebels successfully forced Austrian forces to retreat into

Quadrilateral in Venetia.

The Sardinia took it as an opportunity and intervened for the help of Lombards and to gain the

favor of liberals it published a constitution too.

Conclusion of 1848 Movements:

Somehow, Austria successfully sustained the Sardinian attacks and defeated Sardinia at Custozza

an Novara and crushed the revolts in different regions of Italy mode. And suppressed the

Manning in Milan at last the setup in Italy was revert to 1847s.

Integration Under Cavour (1859-70):

Count de Cavour was the Prime Minister of Kingdom of Sardinia. He began to achieve the Cause

of Italian unification under the leadership of Piedmont Sardinia. He also considered the Bismarck

of Italy.

His policy was to get the support of Powers provoke the occupied foreign rulers and get liberate

the Italian regions.

Integration of Lombardy:

 Cavour helped France and Britain in Crimean war and got their sympathy.

 On one Occasion, Napoleon III asked Cavour What can I do for Italy?
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

 After gaining the French support and through a secret treaty of Plombierres it was

decided France support Sardinia against Austria and France were promised for Nice and

Savoy.

 The last task for Cavour was to provoke Austria, he did by military deployment on

Austrian bordering city.

 Austria declared war on Sardinia. France supported Sardinia and Lombardy were

annexed.

 Meanwhile France unilaterally signed a peace treaty with Austria and quit from war.

 It disheartened Cavour but got the Lombardy liberated.

Integration of Central States: 1859

 Parma. Modena, Tuscany and one of the papal state Romagna revolted against their

dukes.

 Cavour seek opportunity.

 Agreed terms with France by giving Nice and savoy (formerly not given due to French

sudden withdrew).

 Napoleon agreed for Plebiscite.

 The Plebiscite were favored for integration with Piedmont and Sardinia.

Integration of Naples and Sicily:

 The revolt erupts against suppressive rule of son of king Bomba.

 Garibaldi, an Italian wandering Army general. Invaded island with his 1000 soldiers.

 Successfully, captured Sicily and forced the King to withdrew from Naples too.

 Cavour secretly supported him.

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Integration of Papal States: 1860

 Cavour feared the Republican Mazzini influence on Garibaldi and decided take the

situation on his hand.

 He sent his troops to invade papal states except Rome.

 The Sardinian army captured papal states and King Emanuel announced pardon for

Garibaldi

 Garibaldi was forced to give away Naples and Sicily under Sardinian King rather a

republican state.

Integration of Venetia: 1866:

 Venetia was still under Austrian control.

 Fortunately, the time came when Bismarck offered an Alliance with Sardinia.

 Sardinia helped Prussia/Bismarck against Austria; However, Sardinia did not show

enough strength during war.

 But overall war was won by Ally forces and according to treaty Sardinia get Venetia.

Integration of Rome 1870:

 The Rome was still need to be integrate till 1870.

 Pop’s security was assured by French Troops stationed in Rome.

 By 1870, France was engaged in a war against Bismarck of Prussia.

 France recalled its troops from Rome to contain Prussia.

 This was the opportunity for Sardinia.

 Sardinian army marched toward Rome, and forced pop to surrender the city.

Declaration of Kingdom of Italy announced in 1870

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Q: Highlight the major factors that led to the WWI and determine on whom we can place

the major responsibility of the catastrophe?

Ans:

Road To WWI

There were multiple causes which lead to the World War I but the major factors are as follows:

Extreme Nationalism:

The building force of nationalism gradually turned to be a curse for world peace

Complex/Secret Alliance System:

Due to the uncleared and complex Alliance and many of their secrete clauses caused uncertainty

among the world leaders. The Allainces made in late-19th Century and early 20th century were

due on forcing all the world states indulge into war. Some of the complex Alliances system are

as follows:

Dual Alliance 1879

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Germany and Austro-Hungry made an arrangement called Dual Alliance. By this Alliance each

party undertook to help other in event of attack by Russia or to keep neutral in the event of an

attack by France especially.

Triple Alliance: 1882

Bismarck successfully created descension between France and Italy. Italy fall under the basket of

Dual Alliance and formed Triple Alliance with Germany Austro-Hungary and Italy. Latter on

this alliance includes the Romania.

Franco-Russian Dual Alliance:

This was an counter Alliance of triple one. It was managed between France and Russia, if in any

case of Attack from triple Alliance, Both Countries would retaliate together.

Anglo-Japan Alliance 1902:

In 1902 Britain showed some flexibility in its splendid policy. Britain made Ally out of Europe

so that he could assure the British interest in India and contain other European powers from

picking up from east.

Entente Cordiale: 1904

The step Britain taken to smoothen the relations with France and easily curtail Germany

Alliances. However, it was an friendship indicator.

Triple Entente:

The strength of the Entente had extended into three with arrival of Russia.

Nationalism: Road WWI:

Aamir Rahim History Dep.

Nationalism, once was the ideology of self-independence of states and struggle to get

independent nation state now went too far with chauvinist form of extreme nationalist. The

strong nations patriotically pursuing their national interest clashes with one another. It was

nationalism which caused a more imperial approach for national interest and ultimately caused

WWI.

The Balkan Wars:

Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece, which had broken away from the Ottoman Empire

during the 19th Century, formed an alliance called the Balkan League. The Russian-backed

alliance aimed to take away even more of the Turks’ remaining territory in the Balkans

1st War:

In the First Balkan War in 1912, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro defeated Ottoman forces, and

forced them to agree to an armistice. But the Balkan League soon disintegrated, and in the

Second Balkan War, the Bulgarians fought the Greeks and Serbs over Macedonia, and the

Ottoman Empire and Romania jumped into the fray against the Bulgarians as well.

Bulgaria ultimately was defeated. The Balkan Wars made the region even more unstable. In the

power void left by the Ottomans, tensions grew between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. That, in

turn, led Austria-Hungary and its ally, Germany, to decide that a war with the Serbs would be

needed at some point to strengthen Austria-Hungary’s position. “Many historians consider the

Balkan Wars as the true beginning of the First World War,” Fogarty says.

2nd War:
Aamir Rahim History Dep.

An outraged Serbia together with Greece and Rumania went to war with Bulgaria over the

division of the spoils. The Ottoman Empire recapture Adrianople. In 1913 the Treaty of

Bucharest evicted Bulgaria from Macedonia and Rumania took some parts. Serbia became a

giant and population increased with 50 percent. It was an threat to Austria

Immediate Cause:

 Increase in Military establishment.

 The Assassination of Arch Duke of Ferdinand.